Asian Studies

The article is about the creativity of poets who lived in Golkonda in the XV–XVIIth centuries during the reign of the Kutubshah dynasty, such as Muhammad Kuli Kutubshah, and Sultan Ibrahim, his sons – Muhammad and Abdullah and their kulliyats, Muhammad Mazharuddin ibn Nishatiy, about his masnavi "Irshadnama", "Sukh Sahela", as well as poets such as Aminuddin Ala, Kamal Khan Rustami, Mirzo Muhammad Mukimi and others.

This article analyzes the diversity of opinions on the geography of cities and urban lifestyles in regions with a Turkic population based on sources and data from the scientific literature. An attempt is made to substantiate the original roots of sedentary agricultural and handicraft economic relations among the Turkic peoples of antiquity and the early Middle Ages.

At  present,  Uzbekistan  is  at  a  initial  stage  of  development  and  reform,  and universities  are  more  concerned  about  university  English  education  due  to  its  talent development  strategy  and  social  needs.  The  university  English  curriculum  has  made periodical achievements in the past 10 years of reforms, but there are also some problems, such  as  curriculum  content  is  monotony,  curriculum  classifications  are  similar,  teaching objectives are  not  clear,  and the form of  courses  evaluation  is  single,  teaching  method is outdated.  To  solve  these  problems,  the  researcher  puts  forward  the  following  suggestions according  to  needs  analysis  theory,  and  make  a  research  to  non-English  majors,  the curriculum  of  university  English  must  be  based  on  the  development  of  students'  English proficiency, the teaching content should reflect the characteristics of majors, teachers need to update their teaching concepts, innovate teaching methods, combine classroom teaching with the second class learning. establish a scientific curriculum evaluation system and strengthen the promotion role of formative evaluation. Therefore, learners’ needs should be integrated to make a purposeful adjustments to the university English curriculum.

In this article the political and military relations between the Temurids and the Chagatai rulers, in particular, the military, political and diplomatic relations of Shahruh Mirzo and Ulugbek Mirzo with the Chagatai rulers Muhammadkhan, Sher Muhammad, Naqshi Jahon, Vaiskhan in the first half of the 15th century, and also issues such as the impact of the Temurids on the political life of Mogholistan have been studied.

This article examines the literary process of Arabic Middle Ages (VIII–XII) – Golden age of Arabic literature.

Folklore is a rare source that for centuries  has oreserved the worlview,consciousness,socio-political  and  philosophical-aesthetic  views  of  our  people  in  a  simple  and  understandable  form.In  particular,anecdotes cover a person’s goals, dreams, life events, sorrows and jois,ordinary people’s stuggles for justice, and daily life. Nasreddin Efendi’s anecdotes are aimed at  conveying and revesling to the younger generation the essence of the genre that has developed over the centuries before us and their role in social, practical life.

Currently, in the Republic of Uzbekistan there is a noticeable expansion of intercultural and inter-literary relations with foreign countries, as well as an increase in interest in fiction, which makes it necessary to pay close attention to translations of world literature into Uzbek and the best works of Uzbek literature into world languages. The translation of works of fiction is a very complex phenomenon, one of the main tasks  of  which  is  an  adequate  interpretation  of  the  literary  text.  The  translator  must correctly translate the text from the original language, i.e. to convey both the meaning of the translated work and the image created by the writer, only then will the reader have a sense  of  adequate  aesthetic  perception  of  what  he  read.  To  translate  correctly  the conceptual and emotional content of a work, translation transformations help. According to Komissarov, translation transformations are formal-semantic in nature, transforming the  form  and  meaning  of  the  original  units.  That  is,  translation  transformations  are  a translation method used in the translation of various original texts in cases where there is no correspondence in the translated language for a word from the original language or the existing word cannot be used in this context Our  article  discusses  one  of  the  important  aspects  of  translation  studies  -  lexical transformations.  When  working  on  them,  such  types  of  transformations  as  translation transcription  and  transliteration,  tracing  and  lexical-semantic  substitutions  (which include concretization, generalization, modulation) will be considered. As a material for studying examples of lexical transformations, the work of the classic of Uzbek literature P. Kadyrov’s novel “Yulduzli tunlar. Bobur ”and its translations into Russian (done by Y. Surovtsev and published under the name“ Babur ”) and into Urdu (done by Manzur Salim and published under the name "   ب ب ین  لداظہیر  ").  It should be noted that the translations were made from Uzbek into Russian, and already from Russian into Urdu. The article considers and systematizes lexical transformations that occur during translation into multisystem languages.

Currently, in the Republic of Uzbekistan there is a noticeable expansion of intercultural and inter-literary relations with foreign countries, as well as an increase in interest in fiction, which makes it necessary to pay close attention to translations of world literature into Uzbek and the best works of Uzbek literature into world languages. Translation of works  of  fiction  is  a  very  complex  phenomenon, one  of the  main  tasks  of  which is  an adequate interpretation of the literary text. The translator must correctly translate the text from the original language, i.e. to convey both the meaning of the translated work and the image created by the writer, only then the reader will have a feeling of an adequate aesthetic perception of what he read. To translate correctly the conceptual and emotional content of a work, translation transformations help. According to Komissarov, translation transformations are formal-semantic in nature, transforming the form and meaning of the original units. That is,  translation  transformations are  a  method  of  translation  used  in  the  translation of various original  texts  in  cases  where  for  a  word  from the  original  language  there  is  no  correspondence  in  the translated language or the existing word cannot be used in this context In this article, one is considered. In this paper, one of the important aspects of translation studies is considered -  grammatical  transformations.  When  working  on  them,  such  types  of  transformations  as  grammatical substitutions,combined sentences, decomposition of sentences, literally translation  will be considered. As a material for the study of examples of grammatical transformations, the material of P. Kadyrov’s novel “Yulduzli tunlar. Bobur ” and its translations into Russian (made by Y. Surovtsev and published under the title,“ Babur ”) and into Urdu from Uzbek (made by Manzur Salim and published under the title translated into Urdu" نیدلاریہظ    رباب "). It should be noted that the translations were made from Uzbek into Russian, and already from Russian into Urdu. The article considers and systematizes lexical transformations that occur during translation into multisystem languages.

There  is  a  special  cultural  and  spiritual  interpretation  of  numbers  in intercultural  dialogue,  which  is  preserved  from  history  to  the  present.  The  similarities and differences in ethnic cultures can be explained by lifestyle factors, ethnography, and the  geographical  location  of  the  mentioned  sources  and  literary  works.  Customs, ceremonies of peoples, as well as literary and other sources can be considered evidence of the existence of a long-rooted connection of numbers in the thinking and mythology of peoples. This article discusses the meaning of numbers in the customs and traditions of the Turkish peoples. Although their geographical location is far from each other, it has been  said  that  there  are  certain  rituals  associated  with  certain  numbers.  The  article explores  the  relationship  of  certain  events  related  to  the  ceremony  numbers,  their particular  importance  in  Turkish  national  culture.  The  preservation  and  revival  of national  values  associated  with  the  figures  that  form  the  unique  mentality  of  Turkish today  is  one  of  the  priorities  of  the  country's  cultural  policy.  The  work  describes  the performance of Turkish rituals associated with the birth of a child, their influence on the further  life  of  a  person.  Ethnopsychological  features  of  the  Turkish  people  that distinguish it from other nations and nationalities. You can see how religion has influenced the culture of some peoples, as well as what led to the emergence of new customs and traditions among people. Religion and religious concepts in Turkish folklore and cultural life are deeply rooted in the minds of people. The  proof  of  our  words  is  the  existence  of  various  ceremonies  conducted  by  local residents.  Numbers  have  their  place  and  meaning  in  Turkish  prayers  and  various ceremonies. Ceremonies associated with numbers have similarities in rural Turkey.

Today,  the  attention  of  all  countries  of  the  world  and  international organizations is directed to the Middle East region. The Middle East is a strategically important  region  and  has  enormous  energy  potential,  including  a  large  amount  of hydrocarbons. In this regard, we can say that the stability of this region directly affects the stability of the world as a whole. Historically, the Middle East has been a very attractive territory for various reasons. The  one  who  controlled  this  strategically  important  zone  possessed  tremendous  power and wealth. Despite the declining role of the region as a crossroads between different continents  in  connection  with  the  development  of  the  global  system  of  transport communications, the strategic importance of the Middle East in recent decades has not only not decreased, but, on the contrary, has grown significantly. Also, the energy factor remains  the  main  reason  for  the  increased  attention  to  the  region.  As  you  know,  the technologies of modern civilization are almost completely dependent on the extraction of organic energy. Therefore, the distribution of resources has gradually turned into one of the most important elements in building the current system of international relations. The desire to establish control over them is the cause of numerous conflicts in the region.

The  analytical  article  determines  the  formation  of  trends,  the  main  directions,  prerequisites and factors that influence on the Uzbek-Japanese cooperation. The condition and prospects of its development  are  also  revealed.  An  analytical  study  based  on  a  systematic  approach,  where  Uzbek-Japanese  cooperation  is  considered  as  interconnected  elements  of  modern  international  relations.  This approach allowed to perceive the internal laws of the development of international relations of the Asian continent in which Uzbekistan is the leading element in Central Asia and Japan in the East. The application of the logical-historical approach gave a chance to disclose the content, nature and of dynamics  of  development  of  bilateral  relations.  Depicted  the  condition  and  practical  action,  Japan's interests in expanding cooperation. Relations in the spheres of trade, economy, the cultural and humanitarian contribute to the transformation of Central Asia into a stable developed economic space. In order to achieve the goals and objectives, the author thoroughly analytically processed the facts, events,  processes,  as  well  as  the  speeches  of  leaders,  politicians  who  have  effect  on  bilateral  relations between Uzbekistan and Japan. The content of agreements, treaties, memorandums signed between the two countries is analyzed. The results of an analytical study show that, firstly, Japan is a strategic partner of Uzbekistan. This determines  the  priority  and  role  in  the  relationships.  There  exist  historical  bilateral  ties  which  have geopolitical  and  geostrategic  meanings  in  international  relationships  in  the  Asian  region.  Secondly, bilateral cooperation is developing gradually and growing into a new stable stage which contributing to the emergence of a new level of relationships. The  effective  use  of    untouched  potential  of  Japan,  which  contribute  to  the  social  and  economic development of Central Asian states, will further contribute to the integration of the region into the system of trade, economic and transport  of the world. In addition, these processes require systematic and strategic researches  that  identify  and  determine  the  prospects  for  the  development  of  bilateral  and  multilateral relationships between Uzbekistan and Japan.

Machine  building  leads  among  the  other  branches  of  industry  in  the  use  of  high technology and has a large multiplicative effect in economy. Especially, machine building plays the key role in spreading of the leading machines, equipment and technological process and in other branches of economy. Modern tendency of development of machine building in world economy, in the  East  Asian  countries  Japan,  China),  as  well,  perspects  of  development  of  the  branches  in Uzbekistan with the account of experience of modern industrial countries are studied here.

This article based on the analysis of his third, little-known work of the Arabic historian and geographer of the 9th century al-Ya’qubi “Mushakalat an-nas li zamanihim” (The Adaptation of men to their time). It reveals new aspects of Al-Ya’qubi’s oeuvre. The treatise relatively recent work composed by al-Ya’qubi that has reached after two of his well-known works “Kitab al-buldan” (Book of countries). and "Kitab  at-ta’rih  (“Book  of  History”).  In  the  article,  this  treatise  is  considered  from  a  sociological perspective. Al-Ya’qubi, based on the thesis that all people in Muslim society followed their caliphs, imitated  their conducts and  behaviors,  is  trying  to  identify  the  causes  of  the  degradation  of  Muslim  society during  the reign  of Umayyads and  early  Abbasids.  He considers  that the  main  reason  for  the  moral  and spiritual  decay of  Muslim  Society are the  caliphs  themselves. People  imitated  the  customs  of  the caliphs followed their spiritual and moral orientation. Thus, the quality of Muslim society, according to al-Ya’qubi, directly depends on its leader. As far as the  caliph,  in  its  moral,  ethical  and  spiritual  qualities,  corresponded  to  the  image  of  the  “Amir  al-Mu’minin” – “Commander of the Faithful,” so did the members of society correspond to the image of the faithful Muslims. The  treatise reveals new  aspects of  al-Ya’qubi’s worldview, his  vision of  a just, righteous Muslim society. Through the analysis of this treatise, a new side of al-Ya’kubi’s oeuvre is revealed - sociology. At first glance, an attempt  by  al-Ya’kubi  to  delve  into  the  reasons  for  the  development  of  Muslim  society  may  seem  primitive. However, al-Ya’qubi’s work, considering the development of Muslim society through the prism of “adaptation of men to their time”, could be believed the first example of a medieval Arabic work on sociology.It follows from the article that the thesis and examples of “the adaptation of men to their time” should be considered more deeply. The very division of the caliphs (rulers) of Islam into the categories of “caliphs” and “kings,” as can be seen from the author's introductory remarks to the treatise, says a lot. From the context of the treatise, it turns out that the author lists the first four righteous caliphs as “caliphs,” distinguishing among them Osman ibn Affan, who, according to his description, is deprived of the asceticism and modesty of the two previous caliphs Abu Bakr and Omar ibn al-Khattab. By “kings” of Islam, the author means the caliphs of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. Thus, the main plotline of the treatise is based on the opposition of a righteous Muslim society, led by the “caliph” to its “perverted” form (according to al-Ya'qubi) – the Muslim empire, the “caliphate”, under the authoritarian rule of the “kings” in the person of the caliphs – Umayyads and Abbasids. 

Many  works  of  art  have  been  translated  from  Turkish  into  Uzbek.  The  contribution  of  Uzbek translators is significant. At the same time, the best examples of Uzbek literature are being translated into Turkish and presented to Turkish readers. The works of A. Kadyri, P. Kadyrov, A. Qahhor, O. Hoshimov and other famous writers who have made a worthy contribution to the development of Uzbek prose have reached Turkish readers today. The contribution of Turkish translators is invaluable. At the same time, Uzbek translators have made a worthy contribution to the translation of Uzbek literature into Turkish. Among them are translations of the works of the People's Writer of Uzbekistan, Hero of Uzbekistan Said Ahmad into Turkish by teachers Iristoy Kochkartoev, H. Khamidov and his students. Speaking about the analyzed works and translations, it is expedient to further develop the work in this area, to highlight some shortcomings of Uzbek translators, as well as their achievements, to conduct translations from the perspective of skilled translators.

This  paper  is  devoted  to  study  the  translation  problems  of  idioms  from Hindi  into  Uzbek  through  equivalents  and   alternative  version.  It  hass  been  leaded comparative  analysis  of  peculiarities  of  Hindi  and  Uzbek  phraseology  and  determined semantic and stylistic conformity.

The  article  examines  the  main  features  of  political  transformation  in political  institutes  and  processes  in  the  light  of  new  paradigm  of  “New  world  order management;  reveals  a  doctrinal  role  of  so  called  “chaos  control”  theory  in  the formation  and  realization  of  modern  political  strategies  in  XXI  century.  First  of  all,  a number  of  authors  propose  specialized  monitoring  of  strategic  planning  and  current governance practices, taking into account the inadequacies and uncertainties of current international  processes. Such  monitoring  based on  the  goals  of  universal  international organizations  (UN),  regional  alliances  (EI),  international  economic  and  financial institutions (IMF) can be compared. The recording of such processes requires the adjustment of the relevant legal framework regulating the areas of international cooperation. For  example,  global  markets  may  be  self-organized  or  "thoroughly  penalized"  with international  penalties.  The possibility of  a  fully  centralized  and  effective  international management  system  is  far  from  likely.  In  addition,  globalization  seems  to  be  the  most powerful  in  sophisticated  dynamic  systems  in  the  synergetic  literature.  The  "multiple vector inequalities" have been replaced by the  equality dynamics during the Cold War era. Instead of a single major conflict (East-West, North-South), local conflicts can be brought  to  the  global  catastrophe  (ex.  Middle  East,  Syria,  Ukraine).  The  balance  of deviance  equates  to  the  imbalance  of  instability.  According  to  some  authors,  the aspiration for the position of a "world governor" in globalizing conditions is extremely dangerous: no state can manage the coordinating functions in complex dynamic systems, such as planetary globalization. Finally,  some  authors  link  the  global  instability  of  the  modern  world  with  the phenomenon of the US-led Center for Forces. Researchers  write about "chaos forces", "crisis management crises" strategies and "executive chao s". Perhaps, it is possible to use  the  concept  of  non-tolerance  and  the  concept  of  chaos  in  the  interests  of  the customer's controlled chaos, ie, to strengthen the dominant position of a single powerful state. One of the most serious threats of globalization is the instability of the financial markets in the self-regulating process. The global financial crisis can lead to a series of breaks  in  the  regional  market.  That's  why  the  strategy  of  the  "managed  crisis"  in  the economy  (for  example,  powerful  states  like  the  US  or  Russia)  is  to  weaken  the  most dangerous potential competitors without endangering the global economy.

Like a river that was born from springs, carrying its stormy waters to the sea and ultimately giving  them  to  the  vast  ocean,  true  writers  and  poets  cannot  create  without  sources  of  inspiration. Obviously, sources of inspiration can be not only the experience about nation or localty’s distinctive past which  writer  has  learnt  and  organically  connected  with,  but  also  the  urgent  need  of  the  present environment, an author’s desire to express his thoughts and ideas directed to the future. Literature, as any type of panhuman activity, has its own canons and patterns that have been mastered and expanded by the classic writers of all nations of the worldover  the centuries.In particular, Japanese literature  is  characterized  by  reliance  on  traditions,  the  active  use  of  historical  experience  of  previous periods literature and redefinition of the past, as well as an original and innovative point of view on reality. The article covers the role of literature traditions, the principles of the transformation of old stories’ forms and contents and their new interpretations in the works of a talented representative of Japanese literature of the 17th  century  Ihara  Saikaku.  For  this  purpose,  a  selection  of  the  interpreted  works  of  the  author  and  their comparative analysis with a number of classical primary sources of Japanese and Chinese literature has been made. Through the analysis, the principles of redefinition, an innovative interpretation of traditional genres and plots, as well as shifts in the system of artistic representations of that time have been revealed.

In this article Turkish national and oral drama’s peculiarities, genres and its performances are highly discussed. Some of the samples of Turkish oral drama as “Kukla”, “Karaguz”, “Maddakh” are investigated in this research.

Studies  on  the  Arabic  language  are  currently  being  conducted  in  Cairo, Damascus, Beirut, Baghdad, Algeria and Tunisia, where most of the studies in these linguistic centers  are  based  on  the  traditions  of  Arabic  schools.  Scientists  from  the  universities  of Leiden, Paris, Oxford, Cambridge, Halle, Prague and Rome are more committed to studying Arabic grammar, adhering to European linguistic traditions. This tradition is also observed in the activities of scientists working on the Arab grammar system in the institutes of Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In addition, it is noted that European scholars studied the Arabic language based on the traditions of Arabic linguistics, and that the study of the Arabic language was carried out using European theories. To illustrate these two traditions, it is appropriate to study the work of Russian scientists, who have taken a leading place in Arab, European and European studies and have made a significant contribution to the development of Arab studies. This article is devoted to a chronological analysis of studies of issues of Arabic philology of  a  traditionally  Arab  and  European  direction.  In  the  process  of  analysis,  the  scientific activity of scientists in the field of Arabic grammar, literature, the history of Arabic linguistics and dialectology is noted. The  study  of  Arabic  manuscripts  played  an  important  role  in  the  formation  and development of Arabic philology. The department of Oriental Studies, which studies Arabic literary language and manuscript monuments in the same language, originated in Europe. Later,  this  tradition  came  to  Russia.  Russian  archeologists  have  made  a  number  of achievements in this area. In particular, the study of manuscripts stored in library collections and  private  funds  has  been  the  task  of  scientific  research  since  that  time.  In  addition  to Europe  and  Russia,  the  study  of  Arabic  manuscripts  in  Uzbekistan  began,  especially  in Bukhara, Samarkand and Khorezm. However, the study of manuscripts in these areas was considered more religious. It is noteworthy that unlike Russia and Europe, large theoretical studies  on  Arabic  were  carried  out  in  Uzbekistan  until  the  14th  century.  This  shows  that Arabic studies have developed early on the territory of Uzbekistan.

It was tradition to write "Arbain" - "Chihil Hadis" worksin Eastern classical literature which means collecting forty hadiths in one place, explaining their meaning to simple people, writing comments on them. The observations show that every time has its "Arbain", which put forward a clear theme and purpose. According to Hadith Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), "Whoever memorize forty hadiths, follows and teaches them, he will be under my intercession on the Day of Resurrection". According to this hadith people tried to memorize forty hadiths and deliver them to the people. The lexical meaning of "Arbain" is forty. In addition, to be in chilla for forty days means the prayers’ purifying and praying in the nook for forty days, forty days from birth and after the death. These forty days are called asa period of "cleansing".  Medieval thinkers chose forty hadiths which were about Islamic rules and place together. They attempted to explain the meaning and significance of these forty hadiths to people in easier way. For this they used the prose and poetry effectively.  In this article we aimed to give some information about handwritten copies of “Arbain” works which are being saved in the central fund of Oriental manuscripts center named after Abu Rayhan Beruni under the Tashkent State Institute of Oriental studies of the Republic of Uzbekistan.

This article tells about the history of trade and economic relations of the Bukhara Khanate with Iran in the XVI-XVII centuries. As you know, the Central Asian region and Iran were located on the routes of the Great Silk Road, therefore close trade relations between peoples developed here. Trade and diplomatic relations between the Bukhara Khanate and Iran in the 16th-17th  centuries were  the  object  of  many  Russian  researchers  and  are  described in  many sources and literature. For example, about the embassy under the leadership of the Ambassador of  Zvenigorodsky  Andrei  Dmitrievich,  Anthony  Jenkinson,  sent  on  trade  relations  to  these countries. The reports of these ambassadors are of very great historical significance.

Based  on  data  reflecting  the  share  of  the  tourism  industry  in  the  world economy, as well as its accelerated development in recent years, this article substantiates the important role and relevance of this industry in the development of the economy of Uzbekistan.  Along  with  this,  an analysis  is  made of  the  current  state  and  development trends of the tourism industry in the countries of the Near and Middle East, and its place, role  and  priority  importance  in  national  economies  are  disclosed.  Factors  are  shown which influence positively or negatively on the development of this industry in Turkey, which is among the leading countries of the world and is considered a leader among the countries of the region and other non-Arab countries, like Iran and Israel. In the article, economic indicators, such as statistics on the number of tourists arriving in the country, tourism income and shares in GDP, reflecting the state of international tourism are given in table form. These data on the development of tourism in the countries of the Near and Middle East are compared with the indicators of the leading countries of the industry in the  world.  The  paramount  importance  of  peace  and  tranquility,  social  and  political stability in the country is especially noted. Also, the importance of tourism development in Uzbekistan and its forecasts for the near future are outlined.

This article is devoted to the study of “Jamshid Koshiy’s travel to Samarkand and the issue of the ownership of the work named “Ziji Khаkаniy” to him. Here is analyzed thoroughly the time of the inhabitance of Jamshid Koshiy in Samarkand and as well as his work “Ziji Khаqаniy”. It’s  proved  with  scientifically-based  facts  that  the  scholar  came  to  Samarkand  in  1413  and  “Ziji Khaqaniy” was not belonged to Shahrukh but it was belonged to Mirzo Ulugbeks library.

This article discusses the concepts of "baihua" and "wenyan", their similarities and differences, as well as the burial language of these two realities of the Chinese language. The grammatical and lexical-semantic features of classical Chinese and Baihua, as well as their mutual influence are noted.  As it is known, in Chinese before the declaration of putung-hua in standard Chinese, in parallel, there were two realities, this is the classical Chinese language - wenyan, which was relevant in China until the end of the twentieth century, and baihua "spoken language". Laconic sayings on wenyana, texts of classical works of Chinese literature contain about half the number of hieroglyphs than the same text on baihua. In wenyang, monosyllabic words (written in one hieroglyph) predominate, while in baihua, disyllabic words (written in two hieroglyphs) dominate; in the Vanyan texts, transposition is a frequent phenomenon, when many  hieroglyphic  words  in  different  situations  can  be  different  parts  of  speech;  reliance  on context  is used, in particular, to avoid unnecessary pronominalization (use of pronouns), frequent non-use of subjects in general; no punctuation; no affixation. According to Chinese linguists, the first works on baihua appeared in the period of the Song dynasties (960- 1279) and the Yuan (1271-1368).  The flourishing of  Baihua prose falls on the Song-Yuan epoch (10th-14th centuries), when significant changes took place in social and cultural life, reflected in literature as well. One of the most important features of spiritual life is the development of folk forms of culture: folk theater, different types of folklore (narrative genres, narratives). Prose on baihua, i.e. in the literary language, which is close to the  conversational  speech  (baihua  xiaosho),  is  one  of  the  most  important  types  of  Chinese  literature  of  the Middle  Ages  and  one  of  the  main  directions  of  the  creative  activity  of  writers  since  the  XI  century.  In  the twentieth  century.  This  type  of  literature  became  the  basis  of  modern  prose  (novel,  story,  story).  The  name baihua xiaosho is a concept of a late period,  when in  Chinese culture the distinctions between two literary languages were clearly designated: the classical “wenyan” and the colloquial “baihua”.