108
advantaged by early sequential bilingualism and further highlight the benefits of second language
exposure in the context of early formal education [Kalashnikova: 2014: 111].
In conclusion, the article has listed out the three main types of Bilingualism as well as disparities
and clarities on what type Bilingualism people belong to. It has been proven that each these types
mentioned above occur in the different dynamic setting and supported by factual information.
REFERENCES:
1.
Baker, Colin. Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Bilingual education and
bilingualism. Multilingual Matters, 2001. 484 p.
2.
Diller Karl C. ed. Individual Differences and Universals in Language Learning Aptitude. Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House. 1981. pp. xi-218.
3.
Diller Karl Conrad. Teaching a Living Language. Harper & Row. University of Michigan. 2010.
135 p.
4.
Haugen, Einar Ingvald. The Norwegian language in America: A study in bilingual behavior. Vol.
1: The bilingual community; Vol. II. The American dialects of Norwegian. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press. 1953. 699 p.
5.
Houwer, A. D. Bilingual first language acquisition. UK: Multilingual Matters. 2009.
6.
Kalashnikova Marina, Mattock Karen. Maturation of executive functioning skills in early
sequential bilingualism, International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17:1, 2014. p.111.
7.
Patterson, Janet. Relationships of expressive vocabulary to frequency of reading and television
experience among bilingual toddlers. Applied Psycholinguistics. Vol. 23(4). Cambridge:
CUP. 2002.
pp.
493-508
8.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contacts. Findings and Problems. New York: Linguistic Circle of
New York. 1953. 212 p.
9.
Weinreich, Uriel. Language contacts: State and problems of research. Kiev: Vishcha school,
1979. 263 p.
DIPHTHONGS AND THEIR USE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Awezova K.Q.
1
st
year Master student of the «Linguistics» (English language) Department
Qurbanova A.
2
nd
year student of the Foreign Language and Literature department
Berdakh Karakalpak State University, Nukus, Uzbekistan
Abstract
: A diphthong ['dɪfθɒŋ], from Ancient Greek δίφθογγος – díphthongos, ‗two sounds‘, from δίς –
dís – 'twice', and φθόγγος – phthóngos – 'sound', also known as a gliding vowel, is a combination of two
adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different
targets: that is, the tongue and other parts of the speech apparatus, moves during the pronunciation of the
vowel. In most varieties of English, the phrase ‗no highway cowboy‘ – [noʊ 'haɪweɪ 'kaʊbɔɪ] has five
distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable
Key words
: closing, opening, and centering, falling and rising, narrow and wide, length
Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where the tongue or other speech organs do not move
and the syllable contains only a single vowel sound. For instance, in English, the word /
ah
/ is spoken as a
monophthong [α:], while the word /
ow
/ is spoken as a diphthong in most varieties [aʊ]. Where two
adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables, for example, in the English word /
re-elect
/ – [ri'ilekt]
the result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong. The English word /
hiatus
/ – [ˌhaɪ'eɪtәs] is itself an
example of both hiatus and diphthongs.
Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a
conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are
heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds – phonemes.[Borg:1997]
In the International Phonetic Alphabet – IPA, monophthongs are transcribed with one symbol, as
in English
sun
– [sʌn], in which [ʌ] represents a monophthong. Diphthongs are transcribed with two
symbols, as in English
high
– [hai] or
cow
– [kaʊ], in which [ai] and [aʊ] represent diphthongs.
Diphthongs may be transcribed with two vowel symbols or with a vowel symbol and a semivowel
symbol. In the words above, the less prominent member of the diphthong can be represented with the
symbols for the palatal approximant [j] and the labiovelar approximant [w], with the symbols for the close
vowels [i] and [u], or the symbols for the near-close vowels [ɪ] and [ʊ]. Some transcriptions are broader
109
or narrower, less precise or more precise phonetically, than others. Transcribing the English diphthongs in
high
and
cow
as [aj], [aw] or [ai
], [au ] is a less precise or broader transcription, since these diphthongs
usually end in a vowel sound that is more open than the semivowels [j] and [w] or the close vowels [i]
and [u]. Transcribing the diphthongs as [aɪ
] and [aʊ ] is a more precise or narrower transcription, since the
English diphthongs usually end in the near-close vowels [i] and [ʊ]. The non-syllabic diacritic, the
inverted breve below [
] is placed under the less prominent part of a diphthong to show that it is part of a
diphthong rather than a vowel in a separate syllable: [aɪ
] and [aʊ ] [Carbonell:1992].
When there is no contrastive vowel sequence in the language, the diacritic may be omitted. Other
common indications that the two sounds are not separate vowels are a superscript, [aᶦ] and[aᶷ], or a tie bar,
[a ɪ] and [a ʊ] or [a
ɪ] and [a ʊ]. The tie bar can be useful when it is not clear which symbol represents the
syllable nucleus, or when they have equal weight.[Chițoran:2001]; [Chițoran:2002a]; [Chițoran:2002b].
Superscripts are especially used when an on-glide or off-glide is particularly fleeting [Cruz-
Ferreira:1995].
The period [.] is the opposite of the non-syllabic diacritic: it represents a syllable break. If two
vowels next to each other belong to two different syllables or hiatus, meaning that they do not form a
diphthong, they can be transcribed with two vowel symbols with a period in between. Thus,
lower
can be
transcribed ['loʊ.әr], with a period separating the first syllable, [loʊ], from the second syllable, [әr].
The non-syllabic diacritic is used only when necessary. It is typically omitted when there is no
ambiguity, as in
high
– [hai] and
cow
– [kaʊ]. No words in English have the vowel sequences [a.ɪ] and
[a.ʊ], so the non-syllabic diacritic is unnecessary.
Falling or descending diphthongs start with a vowel quality of higher prominence – higher pitch
or volume, and end in a semivowel with less prominence, like [aɪ
] in
eye
, while rising or ascending
diphthongs begin with a less prominent semivowel and end with a more prominent full vowel, similar to
the [ja] in
yard
. Sometimes, however, the terms ‗falling‘ and ‗rising‘ are used, instead, to refer to vowel
height, i.e. as synonyms of the terms ‗closing‘ and ‗opening‘ [Faria:2003].
The less prominent component in the diphthong may also be transcribed as an approximant, thus
[aj] in
eye
and [ja] in
yard
. However, when the diphthong is analyzed as a single phoneme, both elements
are often transcribed with vowel symbols [aɪ
] and [ɪ a]. Semivowels and approximants are not equivalent
in all treatments, and in the English and Italian languages, among others, many phoneticians do not
consider rising combinations to be diphthongs, but rather sequences of approximant and vowel. There are
many languages, such as Romanian, that contrast one or more rising diphthongs with similar sequences of
a glide and a vowel in their phonetic inventory, semivowel for examples [Gussenhoven: 1992].
In closing diphthongs, the second element is closer than the first, for example, [ai]; in opening
diphthongs, the second element is more open, for example, [ia]. Closing diphthongs tend to be falling [ai
],
and opening diphthongs are generally rising [i a], as open vowels are more sonorous and therefore tend to
be more prominent [Kaye:1994].
However, exceptions to this rule are not rare in the world's languages. In Finnish, for instance, the
opening diphthongs [ie
] and [uo ] are true falling diphthongs, since they begin louder and with higher
pitch and fall in prominence during the diphthong. A third, rare type of diphthong that is neither opening
nor closing is height-harmonic diphthongs, with both elements at the same vowel height [Kleine: 2003].
These may have occurred in Old English. A centering diphthong is one that begins with a more
peripheral vowel and ends with a more central one, such as [ɪә
], [ ә ], and [ʊә ] in Received Pronunciation
or [iә
] and [uә ] in Irish. Many centering diphthongs are also opening diphthongs [iә ], [uә ]. Diphthongs
may contrast in how far they open or close. For example, Samoan contrasts low-to-mid with low-to-high
diphthongs. Narrow diphthongs are the ones that end with a vowel which on a vowel chart is quite close
to the one that begins the diphthong, for example Northern Dutch [eɪ], [øʏ] and [oʊ]. Wide diphthongs are
the opposite – they require a greater tongue movement, and their offsets are farther away from their
starting points on the vowel chart. Examples of wide diphthongs are Received Pronunciation or General
American English [aɪ] and [aʊ].
Languages differ in the length of diphthongs, measured in terms of morae. In languages with
phonemically short and long vowels, diphthongs typically behave like long vowels, and are pronounced
with a similar length. In languages with only one phonemic length for pure vowels, however, diphthongs
may behave like pure vowels. For example, in Icelandic, both monophthongs and diphthongs are
pronounced long before single consonants and short before most consonant clusters.
Some languages contrast short and long diphthongs. In some languages, such as Old English,
these behave like short and long vowels, occupying one and two morae, respectively. Languages that
contrast three quantities in diphthongs are extremely rare, but not unheard of; Northern Sami is known to
contrast long, short and ‗finally stressed‘ diphthongs, the last of which are distinguished by a long second
element.
110
While there are a number of similarities, diphthongs are not the same phonologically as a
combination of a vowel and an approximant or glide. Most importantly, diphthongs are fully contained in
the syllable nucleus while a semivowel or glide is restricted to the syllable boundaries, either the onset or
the coda. This often manifests itself phonetically by a greater degree of constriction, but the phonetic
distinction is not always clear [Kohler: 1999].
The English word
yes
– [jes], for example, consists of a palatal glide followed by a monophthong
rather than a rising diphthong. In addition, the segmental elements must be different in diphthongs [ii
] and
so when it occurs in a language, it does not contrast with [i:]. However, it is possible for languages to
contrast [ij] and [i:].
Diphthongs are also distinct from sequences of simple vowels. The Bunaq language of Timor, for
example, distinguishes [sa i] and [saj] – ‗
exit
‘ from [sai] and [saʲi] – ‗
be amused
‘, [te i] and [tej] – ‗
dance
‘
from [tei] and [teʲi] – ‗
stare at
‘, and [po i] and [poj] – ‗
choice
‘ from [loi] and [loʷi] – ‗
good
‘.
The factual basis of this presumed distinction seems very questionable. It goes on stating that in
his own dialect, there is no length difference in these words, and that judgments on vowel length in front
of non-prevocalic [r] which is itself vocalized are problematic, in particular if [a] precedes. According to
the ‗lengthless‘ analysis, the aforementioned ‗long‘ diphthongs are analyzed as [i ], [y ], [u ], [e ], [ø ],
[o
], [ ] and [a ]. This makes non-prevocalic [a:r] and [ar] homophonous as [a ] or [a:]. Non-prevocalic
[ ːr] and [ r] may also merge, but the vowel chart shows that they have somewhat different starting points
[Kohler: 1999: 88].
REFERENCES:
1. Birbosa, Plínio A., Albano, Eleonora C. Brazilian Portuguese, Journal of the International Phonetic
Association, 34 (2): 2004. pp. 227-232.
2. Bertinetto, Pier Marco, Loporcaro, Michele. The sound pattern of Standard Italian, as compared with
the varieties spoken in Florence, Milan and Rome. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35
(2): 2005. pp. 131-151.
3. Borg, Albert J. Azzopardi-Alexander, Marie Maltese, Routledge. 1997.
4. Carbonell, Joan F., Llisterri, Joaquim Catalan, Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (1-
2): 1992. pp. 53-56.
5. Chițoran, Ioana The Phonology of Romanian: A Constraint-based Approach, Berlin and New York:
Mouton de Gruyter. 2001.
6. Chițoran, Ioana. A perception-production study of Romanian diphthongs and glide-vowel sequences,
Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 32 (2): 2002a pp. 203-222.
7. Chițoran, Ioana. The phonology and morphology of Romanian diphthongization. Probus, 14 (2):
2002b. pp. 205-246.
8. Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena. European Portuguese. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25
(2): 1995. pp. 90-94.
9. Faria, Arlo. Applied Phonetics: Portuguese Text-to-Speech, University of California, Berkeley. 2003.
10. Gussenhoven, Carlos. Dutch. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (2): 1992. pp. 45-
47.
11. Kaye, Jonathan, Lowenstamm, Jean. De la syllabicité // Dell, François; Vergnaud, Jean-Roger; Hirst,
Daniel eds. La forme sonore du langage. Paris: Hermann. 1994. pp.123-159,
12. Kleine, Ane. Standard Yiddish. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 2003, pp.
261-265
13. Kohler, Klaus J. German. Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of
the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: CUP. 1999. pp. 86-89.
ОСОБЕННОСТИ ИНТЕРНЕТА КАК КАНАЛА КОММУНИКАЦИИ
Сарыбаева Р.
магистрант 2 курса по специальности «Лингвистика»: «Русский язык»
КГУ имени Бердаха, Нукус, Узбекистан
Аннотация:
В настоящее время глобальная сеть интернет является неотъемлемой частью жизни
современного человека. Интернет становится для нас не только наиболее полным и оперативным
источником информации о мире, но и важным средством коммуникации, предоставляющим
пользователям широкие возможности для того, чтобы «говорить» и «быть услышанными».
Прежде всего, стоит отметить, что общение в Сети осуществляется в условиях массовой
коммуникации и, следовательно, имеет свои особенности в отличие от традиционного прямого
