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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS: BRAIN
PHYSIOLOGY AND MECHANISMS OF NEUROPLASTICITY
Xabibullayeva Zarnigorbegim Ibrohimbek qizi
student of Andijan State Institute of foreign languages
Faculty of English language and literature 201-group.
zarnigorhabibullaeva793@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16024522
Abstract. This paper talks about how children develop their thinking and learning skills, and
how the brain plays a big role in this. It explains how the brain works, including how it can change
and grow (called neuroplasticity), how brain cells connect, and how hormones and brain chemicals
affect learning. The paper also highlights the importance of helping children develop their brains
from an early age, enabling them to grow up smart and emotionally healthy.
Keywords: thinking development, brain changes, brain chemicals, children, learning, brain.
Introduction
The teenage years are a time of big changes. Some of these changes are easy to see, like
when you notice your child has suddenly grown much taller. But the most amazing change is
something you can’t see at all: it’s how your child starts to think differently. This is called
cognitive
development
. It’s very important because it helps teenagers handle problems, make decisions, and
plan for the future. Cognitive development refers to how different thinking skills grow, like memory,
imagination, problem-solving, understanding ideas, and using logic. The idea of cognitive
development was first studied by a Swiss philosopher and psychologist named Jean Piaget. His
theory explained how children's thinking becomes more logical and connected to the real world over
time. Piaget believed that as children grow, they build mental “frameworks” (called
schemas
) that
help them understand the world. These frameworks change and improve in different
stages of
development
, as kids learn new ways to understand and organize information in their brains. His
theory is called “constructivist,” which means that children build their thinking skills through their
actions and experiences, not just from inborn abilities (like
nativist
theories say) or from simple
learning by experience (as
empiricist
theories suggest). Instead, kids actively build their knowledge
by interacting with the world around them. Cognitive development is also called
mental
development
, because it deals with how we think and how our mind works. The way the brain itself
develops — its different parts and structures — is an important part of this process.
As many people know, children grow and learn very quickly in their first five years of life.
Their development happens in four important areas:
•
Physical (motor) development – how they move and control their bodies
•
Language and communication – how they understand and use words
•
Social and emotional development – how they understand feelings and interact with others
•
Cognitive development – how they think, learn, and solve problems
A person’s mental development depends on many different things, and these things don’t
affect everyone the same way. The most important factors include:
•
Genetics (what they inherit from their parents)
•
The mother’s pregnancy health
•
The environment (like good food and enough mental stimulation)
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•
How many children are in the family
•
The family’s income and living conditions
•
The school and teaching methods used
•
The personality of the child and their parents, like how they learn best or how they handle
emotions
•
The parents’ qualities, like being very intelligent, creative, or thinking differently from
others
While a person’s level of thinking skills depends on many factors, the process of cognitive
development usually follows similar steps in all people. The first person to describe the major stages
of children’s thinking was a Swiss researcher named Jean Piaget (1896–1980). His theory and
discoveries greatly changed how psychologists understand child development and are considered
groundbreaking. Jean Piaget’s theory is still well known and studied today, even though newer
research has added to it and made some changes. His theory helps us understand how a child
develops thinking skills, like logic, problem-solving, and understanding the world. It's worth taking
a closer look. Piaget's big achievement was that he treated the development of thinking in children
as a key part of how they grow. He believed that children are not just passive learners, but
active
explorers
, like little scientists who experiment, ask questions, and learn by interacting with the world
around them. Through this kind of activity, children build their thinking skills and learn how to
understand the world and its events. Before Piaget, people mostly argued about what shapes a person
more — nature (the traits we are born with and our biological growth) or nurture (what we learn
from experience and our environment). This debate — "nature vs. nurture" — is misleading, because
both play important roles in development. Piaget had a different view. He focused on what the child
discovers
while growing up and what skills they
develop
through those discoveries. He described
four stages of development that show the main steps of this process. But before we talk about these
four stages in detail, we need to explain a few key ideas Piaget introduced. He believed that, through
experience and interaction, children create their own small "theories" or ideas about the world. He
called these schemas (from the German word
schema
or
schemata
). A schema is a mental model —
a way a child understands and organizes information. For example, if a child has had experiences
with dogs, they build a “dog” schema in their mind. When they see new dogs, they use this schema
to recognize and understand that these animals are also dogs.
The schemas children create can change or grow in two main ways:
•
Assimilation – this happens when a child learns something new that is similar to what they
already know. They
add
this new information to an existing schema.
•
Example:
A child has only seen big, furry dogs before. One day, they see a tiny Chihuahua,
but they still call it a dog because it fits their idea of what a dog is.
•
Accommodation – this happens when new information doesn’t fit into any existing schema.
The child has to
change
or create a new schema to understand it.
Example:
A child sees a fox and calls it a dog, because they only know about dogs. After a
parent explains that it’s a fox, not a dog, the child changes their schema and learns that foxes are
different animals.
How the Environment and Learning Affect Thinking Skills. Two main groups of factors
influence how children develop their thinking:
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1.
Biological factors – these include healthy senses (like vision and hearing), the child's
intelligence level, their genetics, and how mature their brain and div are.
2.
Environmental factors – these include access to learning opportunities, the family’s income
level, playtime, stimulation from the environment, and the influence of the child’s family and
society.
When a child’s brain is ready (thanks to biological growth), they can interact with the world
around them. This helps them learn, form new ideas, and improve their thinking abilities. The
environment plays a big role here — the family and community give the child chances to explore,
encouragement, and access to learning materials. All of this supports strong cognitive development.
Brain development. The brain (Latin:
encephalon
, Greek:
enkephalos
) is the main part of the
central nervous system in almost all animals with backbones. In humans and other vertebrates, the
brain is located inside the skull. Neurons (brain cells) connect through special links called synapses.
These connections create complex electrical signals, which control everything the div does
— from moving and breathing to thinking and feeling. Even though scientists have made a lot of
progress in studying the brain in recent years, many parts of how it works are still a mystery. We
understand fairly well how individual brain cells function, but we still don’t fully know how the
brain works as a
whole
— how millions of neurons working together create thoughts, emotions, and
actions. This big picture is still being studied and needs much more research.
Parts of the Human Brain:
1.
Cerebral Hemispheres (also called the
forebrain
)
2.
Thalamus (part of the
diencephalon
)
3.
Hypothalamus (also part of the
diencephalon
)
4.
Midbrain
5.
Pons
6.
Cerebellum
7.
Medulla Oblongata
8.
Spinal Cord
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Teen Brain Development – How Our Children's Brains Work. It’s wrong to think that
teenagers can’t act like adults. In fact, in many situations, they
can
take responsibility, think about
consequences, and make logical decisions. But their behavior can be very inconsistent. This is
because of a key feature of the teenage brain called neuroplasticity. Scientists have found that
neuroplasticity works both ways — it helps the brain build what’s useful and remove what’s
unnecessary or harmful. That’s why negative experiences in the teenage years often leave a strong,
lifelong impact. The teenage years can be tough for both the kids and their parents. It can feel like
the world you knew has turned upside down. Teenagers are caught in between: they don’t want to
be seen as children anymore, but the adult world still feels confusing. Meanwhile, parents feel like
they’re walking on a landmine — even small comments can trigger big emotional reactions and
arguments. Getting through this time is easier if you understand that the teen’s strange behavior and
way of seeing the world are mostly caused by physical changes in the brain. If you want to know
why a teen’s brain seems to “stop working,” you have to look at how the cerebral cortex develops
during adolescence. The human brain fully develops by age 25. But the teen years (ages 11 to 19)
are especially important because that’s when young people gain new experiences that create and
reshape neural connections. Understanding teens is often hard. Adults are often confused by their
mood swings or outbursts. The answer lies in how different parts of the brain grow and develop at
different times. The prefrontal cortex — the area responsible for good judgment, reasoning, and
self-control — finishes developing around age 24. Until then, the limbic system takes the lead,
especially a part called the amygdala. Important: The amygdala is a small part of the brain’s
temporal lobe. It controls emotions, feelings, and instincts. Because the limbic system and amygdala
are very active during adolescence, teens often behave in ways that include:
•
acting on impulse,
•
getting irritated easily,
•
having frequent mood changes,
•
being extremely emotional.
Parents sometimes think teens are “overreacting” or “being dramatic.” But they’re not
pretending — this intense behavior is very real to them. Their brains are wired to see things in black
and white, and small problems can seem like huge disasters.
Child’s Cognitive Development by Age.[1] Cognitive skills develop in several stages as a
child grows. When doctors check for problems with thinking skills, knowing the child’s
development stage is very important. This helps them choose the right way to help the child. In
neuropsychology (the study of the brain and thinking), four main stages of cognitive development
are usually identified. Cognitive development means the child’s intelligence grows step by step. At
different stages, children may have thinking problems caused by birth injuries, early illnesses, social
or other factors. These stages are based on how well the child can understand and interact with the
world and other people.
The main stages are:
•
Sensorimotor intelligence (0–2 years): The baby learns about the world using senses and
movement. They explore by touching, seeing, and feeling things.
•
Preoperational intelligence (2–7 years): The child starts to form general ideas that are not
tied to just one object. For example, they learn the concept of “animal” instead of only knowing
about their pet.
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•
Concrete operational period (7–12 years): The child can group ideas and understand how
things relate to each other. They start organizing information into systems and categories.
•
Formal operational period (12–15 years): The brain becomes able to think about abstract
ideas and hypothetical situations. Teens can solve problems that are not just about the here and now.
Hormones and Neurotransmitters: What’s the Difference? When lifestyle magazines tell you
to raise your dopamine levels, don’t believe it. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, not a hormone.[2]
Here’s the difference:
•
Hormones are made by special glands or cells in the div, like in the heart, stomach,
intestines, salivary glands, kidneys, and liver. They get released into the blood and travel to target
organs far away, or they work right where they are made (these are called local hormones).
•
Hormones are made in small amounts but stay active in the div for a long time.
•
They help keep the div balanced, control metabolism, and regulate growth and
development.
•
Examples of hormones are insulin, testosterone, and estrogens.
•
Neurotransmitters are released by neurons (nerve cells) into tiny gaps called synapses—
spaces between nerve endings.
•
Neurotransmitters can either excite or calm down cells—nerve cells, muscles, or gland cells.
•
Understanding how neurotransmitters work helps scientists create medicines like
antidepressants, tranquilizers, painkillers, and antipsychotic
What Is a Neural Connection?[3] A little anatomy first. The main cells of the nervous system
are called neurons. They create, receive, and send electrical and chemical signals to other neurons.
A neuron has a cell div and branches called dendrites and an axon. The cell div makes
proteins needed to keep the neuron alive. Dendrites receive signals from other cells, while the axon
sends information out. The axon ends in a part called the terminal, where the neuron connects with
other cells to pass information. The place where the axon terminal connects with another neuron is
called a synapse. Also, when an axon connects with another axon, that place is also called a synapse.
Through synapses, dendrites and axons communicate and form nerve networks. Nerve
impulses travel from one neuron to another through these special connections—synapses—which
can be chemical or electrical. One neuron can connect with thousands of others
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The number of neurons and synapses is not constant and changes throughout life. In a
newborn baby, each neuron forms about 2,500 synapses. As the brain develops, the number of
synapses increases, and by the age of three, the number of synapses rises to 15,000 per neuron. This
sharp increase in the number of synapses is associated with active exploration of the world and the
acquisition of many new skills. This is essentially neuroplasticity in action — new neural
connections are formed. However, later the number of synapses decreases because, between the
ages of 2 and 20, a special process occurs in the nervous system — synaptic pruning, or synaptic
trimming. Excess neural connections are destroyed, and axons and dendrites die off. Thus, by
adulthood, the number of synapses per neuron decreases by almost half compared to a very young
child. In adult life, the process of synaptic pruning does not stop but works according to the principle
“use it or lose it” — frequently used synapses form stronger connections between neurons, while
unused or rarely used synapses weaken and are removed. Later, the theory of neuroplasticity was
studied by neurobiologists and Nobel Prize laureates David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel. They sewed
one eyelid of a kitten shut and observed how it affected the visual cortex. It turned out that neurons
in the visual cortex that should have responded to signals from the sewn eye began to respond more
to signals from the open eye. However, the same experiment on adult cats did not yield the expected
result, and scientists assumed that only the young brain possesses plasticity. However,
neurobiologist Michael Merzenich disproved this conclusion. He conducted a harsh but revealing
experiment: he amputated a finger of adult monkeys and observed how the brain areas that
previously represented those fingers adapted to the changes and began to respond to other healthy
fingers. This indicated that the adult brain is capable of reorganizing its structure in response to
changes in sensory information. Merzenich’s idea was further developed by, among others,
Californian scientists. In the early 1990s, they performed autopsies on the brains of people who only
had a school education and those who completed higher education. They found that Wernicke’s area
— the part of the brain responsible for speech comprehension — differed between more and less
educated people. The dendrites — neuron branches that receive signals from other nerve cells — in
this area were much more branched in those with better education. The result of all these studies
was a change in the status quo. Brain structures are no longer considered immutable. Now, scientists
aim to understand the mechanisms by which the brain adapts to changes and how to use this
knowledge to improve human health. For example, to accelerate and enhance rehabilitation
possibilities after traumatic brain injuries and strokes. A person’s personality is formed through
neuroplasticity. When scientists first began studying DNA, many believed that the genome alone
defines the human “self.” But it turned out that there are only about 20,000 genes. Meanwhile, there
are 86 billion neurons in the brain and 200 trillion connections between neurons. In other words, the
brain is too complex to assume that genes alone shape our personality. The contribution of
neuroplasticity to personality formation is significant. Neuroscientist and author of the book
Livewired
, David Eagleman, explains this by suggesting we ask ourselves: why did Einstein become
Einstein? Genetics certainly played a large role, writes the scientist. But every year, many children
are born with equally good potential brains, just as predisposed to scientific discovery. However,
the external environment prevents them from becoming the next Einstein. Perhaps this talented child
is born into a poor family, and their socioeconomic status does not allow them to receive a proper
education and develop their abilities.
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Or the child is a girl, and from childhood, she is told that women are better at literature than
math and physics. Our “self” is the result of how our brain changes, adapting to what happens to us.
That’s what Eagleman means. The brain changes significantly while a person matures and
continues to change throughout their life. Every bit of experience reorganizes neural connections;
these changes accumulate and shape a unique personality.
How to develop brain neuroplasticity. The main principle of increasing brain neuroplasticity
is to constantly try new things. The so-called enriched environment — where everything around is
new and requires attention and effort — stimulates the formation of new neural connections even in
old age, when the brain is less inclined to form them, and protects the brain from aging and the
decline of cognitive reserves.[4]
In conclusion, neuroplasticity is essential in determining how our personalities and cognitive
capacities develop over the course of our lives. The foundation is laid by genetics, but what makes
us who we are is the brain's amazing capacity to change and reorganize in response to experiences
and the environment. We can improve neuroplasticity and foster lifelong brain health and cognitive
resilience by consistently exposing ourselves to novel challenges and educational opportunities.
This knowledge emphasizes how crucial it is to create environments that are stimulating in
order to maximize human potential at any age.
References
1.
https://4brain.ru/blog/kognitivnoe-razvitie-chast-1/
2.
https://cuprum.media/science-answers/hormones-and-neurotransmitters-differences
3.
https://t-j.ru/neuroplasticity/
4.
