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THE ROLE OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF
AFGHANISTAN (IN THE LAST TWO DECADES)
Sharifullah Nikoui
Sociology department, Social science faculty, Parwan university.
nikoui.sharif1212@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15091289
Abstract.
This article examines the relationship between social capital and sustainable
development in Afghanistan. Social capital is a tangible asset through which individuals and
groups can leverage social relationships, including values, social networks, and trust, to gain
economic and social benefits. Social capital, alongside other types of capital such as financial and
cultural capital, plays a significant role in society's transformation and balanced development.
Development requires balanced progress across various dimensions, and sustainable development
eradicates inequality and poverty by strengthening justice and equality. Therefore, the
development process in society is as dependent on cultural and social capital as it is on economic
capital. This research employs a qualitative approach and document review, aiming to analyze
the relationship between social capital and sustainable development in Afghanistan. The findings
indicate that higher levels of social capital are deeply connected to development. This research
clarifies the contradictory perceptions in the literature regarding the impacts of social capital on
sustainable development, demonstrating that social capital has a profound connection to
sustainable development
.
Keywords
: Capital, Social Capital, Development, Sustainable Development, Afghanistan
РОЛЬ СОЦИАЛЬНОГО КАПИТАЛА В УСТОЙЧИВОМ РАЗВИТИИ
АФГАНИСТАНА (ЗА ПОСЛЕДНИЕ ДВА ДЕСЯТИЛЕТИЯ)
Аннотация.
В этой статье рассматривается взаимосвязь между социальным
капиталом и устойчивым развитием в Афганистане. Социальный капитал — это
осязаемый актив, с помощью которого отдельные лица и группы могут использовать
социальные отношения, включая ценности, социальные сети и доверие, для получения
экономических и социальных выгод. Социальный капитал, наряду с другими типами
капитала, такими как финансовый и культурный капитал, играет значительную роль в
трансформации общества и сбалансированном развитии. Развитие требует
сбалансированного прогресса в различных измерениях, а устойчивое развитие искореняет
неравенство и бедность путем укрепления справедливости и равенства. Таким образом,
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процесс развития в обществе зависит от культурного и социального капитала так же,
как и от экономического капитала. В этом исследовании используется качественный
подход и обзор документов, направленный на анализ взаимосвязи между социальным
капиталом и устойчивым развитием в Афганистане. Результаты показывают, что более
высокие уровни социального капитала тесно связаны с развитием. Это исследование
проясняет противоречивые представления в литературе относительно влияния
социального капитала на устойчивое развитие, демонстрируя, что социальный капитал
имеет глубокую связь с устойчивым развитием.
Ключевые слова:
Капитал, Социальный капитал, Развитие, Устойчивое развитие,
Афганистан.
INTRODUCTION
Social capital is a relatively new concept in the field of social studies. It refers to a network
of relationships and connections that lead to better and greater access for individuals to
opportunities, information, material resources, and social status. In sociological theories, concepts
such as trust, solidarity, cohesion, and social values and norms are considered manifestations of
social capital. Lida Hanfian (1916) defines social capital as a collection of tangible assets in the
daily lives of individuals, such as equality, friendship, goodwill, empathy, and social interactions
among a group of individuals or families that form a social unit. Social capital facilitates civil
participation by creating equal opportunities and increases the likelihood of cooperation among
citizens. Cooperation between groups and social organizations raises the level of trust and leads to
greater participation. Pentam examined the relationship between development and social capital,
considering social capital as a fundamental condition for development. The importance of the
relationship between social capital and sustainable development is particularly significant in
countries facing economic and social challenges. Therefore, the issue of this research is to analyze
and examine the relationship between social capital and social sustainable development in Afghan
society.
The research data were collected through qualitative methods and a review of books and
scientific articles.
A noteworthy point regarding the composition of social capital in Afghanistan is its social
fabric, which consists of 55 ethnic groups, among which four ethnic groups Pashtuns, Tajiks,
Hazaras, and Uzbeks constitute the largest populations (Glatzer, 1998: 226).
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Societies with ethnic diversity use social capital as a tool to address social and economic
challenges, and based on this reasoning, Afghanistan has the best opportunities for sustainable
development through the strengthening of social capital. According to Ali-Abadi (1994: 13),
Afghanistan is a museum of various races and ethnicities. This diversity can be a positive aspect
of the cultural richness of society. However, obstacles such as inflexibility, lack of access to equal
opportunities, ethnic nationalism, illiteracy, economic underdevelopment, and so on weaken social
capital. Alongside the aforementioned factors, the closed system of governance and competition
among ethnic groups are considered obstacles to sustainable development. Given that Afghanistan
has endured several decades of crisis, its development process shows a deep reliance on social
capital. According to research data from national and international organizations, Afghanistan
ranks at the top of the list of underdeveloped countries in terms of development and progress.
Although in recent years, significant steps have been taken with the cooperation of the
international community to create conditions for development and rebuild infrastructure, these
efforts have contributed to a relative improvement in the status of social capital within society.
Many analysts describe the achievements of the past two decades as unprecedented in
Afghanistan's history, with the growth of human resources and the accumulation of social capital
in various forms, including civil society, media, and active human rights groups, being among
them. Therefore, this study examines the relationship between social capital and sustainable
development in Afghanistan over the past two decades, with the main issue being how social
capital influences the process of sustainable development in Afghan society. The central question
is how social capital in Afghan society has faced a deadlock and why the existing capacities for
sustainable development have not been utilized. This study employs qualitative methods and
document analysis to gather information from credible sources, analyzing the relationship between
social capital and sustainable development in Afghanistan over the past two decades through a
descriptive-analytical approach. The results confirm the relationship between social capital and
development, describing the formation of a network of social relationships and connections as an
unavoidable necessity for development.
Social Capital Theories
In the contemporary era, due to the influence of economic power, many other aspects of
authority remain unknown to governments. For this reason, policymakers believe that by providing
public services and welfare, they can address all challenges; however, today, social stability and
cohesion have become central topics of discussion among experts as goals of social capital in
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contrast to economic capital. The root of this issue stems from concerns about the excessive threat
of industrialization and technology, which have diminished the role of institutions, values, and
social norms on a global scale. Among all, sociologists emphasize the importance of social capital
over economic capital in society. In general, social capital refers to the resources that individuals
acquire through their connections with one another. The quality and quantity of these connections
are shaped by social relationships, and according to Portes (1998), social capital is found within
the structure of society (Shara'pour, 2005: 11). In other words, social capital is a type of investment
through which individuals produce and obtain expected benefits during social interactions.
Pierre Bourdieu, a French sociologist, is among the first researchers to refer to social capital
in an article titled "Forms of Capital" (1986). According to him, social capital is: a set of potential
and actual resources that are connected to a durable and institutionalized ownership network with
mutual recognition and awareness (Bourdieu, 1997: 50). Social capital is the product of social
relationships and membership in a group that earns credibility for each of its members. Social
capital emerges in the process of exchange and reproduction of relationships, and its benefit
reaches the individual through "purposeful participation or sociability." James Coleman considers
social capital as part of the social structure (Coleman, 1998: 462) that allows the actor to achieve
their interests. Coleman focused more on the function of social capital, while Bourdieu was
interested in how social capital provides access to economic capital.
After Coleman and Bourdieu, Putnam argues that social capital influences economic
development. According to Putnam, networks of civic engagement are the foundation of social
capital. He considers civic culture or social capital to be a prerequisite for political stability and
economic growth (Coleman, 1998: 12). Fukuyama views social capital as a collective asset and
defines it as a specific set of shared values and norms among groups that have mutual trust,
commitment, and communication (Fukuyama, 2000: 69-71). Fukuyama believes that social capital
fosters collaboration among groups based on moral commitment.
He emphasizes the connection between ethics and social capital, describing distrust as a
significant factor in diminishing the effectiveness of social capital in society. In his view, certain
phenomena such as cultural intolerance, racism, ethnic nationalism, and other types of social
networks that have informal moral relationships should be distinguished from the true forms of
social capital.
Overall, social capital focuses on the principle that family, friends, and colleagues are
assets that individuals can benefit from in times of crisis.
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The discussion of social capital is more significant for society than for private circles.
According to Putnam and Goss (2002: 9), a society that possesses various social
organizations can leverage them when facing critical situations.
In addition to the above theories, it has been a common discussion among sociologists that
individual participation in society yields positive results; however, contrary to sociological
assumptions, social capital has two distinguishing features from other related concepts: "One is
that social capital is the result of individuals interacting with one another, and the other is that
social capital is a source of authority" (Tosuli and Mousavi, 2005: 6).
Furthermore, in political and economic policymaking, social capital is utilized as a low-
cost solution to social issues; yet, we ultimately arrive at the question of how social capital
contributes to sustainable development in society. If we compile all the theories related to social
capital, we will conclude that when the relationship between social and economic structures is
based on "trust and cooperation," economic performance and market efficiency increase, leading
to investment in entrepreneurship and positive competition, while in the social dimension, norms,
and social values enhance the level of cooperation (Shari'pour, 2005, 14-15). As a result, social
capital aids in the flourishing of society in all areas and ensures sustainable development; because
any form of investment in society requires a high level of social trust, and communities with low
levels of social capital have the least likelihood of development. An example of such a community
is Afghanistan, which, despite the efforts of the international community and significant economic
expenditures, has not yet achieved development, primarily due to the imbalance between human,
social, economic, and cultural capital. Despite the efforts of the international community and the
Afghan government towards economic self-sufficiency and infrastructure development, the lack
of social capital and trust and cooperation between the government and society has rendered all
these efforts fruitless.
The Relationship Between Sustainable Development and Social Capital
In essence, development refers to the improvement of social, political, cultural, and
economic conditions in a balanced manner. Just as social development emphasizes the
enhancement of living conditions and the empowerment of marginalized groups, strengthening
social institutions, and social welfare indicators, sustainable social development is associated with
social justice, reducing inequality, and the active participation of citizens in public decision-
making. In other words, sustainable development cannot occur without the realization of justice
and equality.
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The report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) defines
sustainable development as development that meets the current needs of society without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Avijit, 1998: 98).
The process of sustainable development requires structural changes that lead to the
reduction of inequality and the eradication of poverty. Sustainable development creates the
conditions for economic growth and contributes to ensuring justice and equality in access to public
welfare such as health, education, and security. Except for economic growth, other dimensions of
sustainable development have a direct relationship with social capital; equality and the right to
access public welfare are not possible without considering social capital, as social capital fosters
collective participation for the efficiency of structures that, as Bourdieu puts it, can be utilized in
specific situations (Smith, 1387: 220). As Bourdieu has explained, social, cultural, and economic
capital are directly related to each other. The relationship between different types of capital and
sustainable development can be explained in such a way that social capital prevents the
commodification of cultural capital and the excessive concentration of economic capital, thereby
creating equitable access to resources and services for all.
Afghanistan and the Escape of Elites (Brain Drain)
Before addressing the main discussion, it is essential to highlight the issue of elite migration
as a primary challenge to social capital in Afghanistan. The flight or migration of elites stems from
the closed conditions and structures of countries. Some have referred to elite migration as a form
of neo-colonialism, used as a tool to access cheap labor. Overall, this term reflects the exit and loss
of specialized human resources, which are considered the social capital of a country (Tayefi, 2006:
9 - 12). Although there are no precise statistics on the number of Afghan migrants in various
countries, existing estimates suggest that the total number of migrants from Afghanistan since
1978 has reached 6 million, constituting 20 percent of Afghanistan's total population (Ramyar,
2020: 154). According to the International Organization for Migration, between 2000 and 2002,
the share of Afghan migration ranked second after Iraq, with 11,000 people migrating to industrial
countries (UNHCR, 2003: 11). While the years 2001 to 2010 are considered relatively better years
for the people of Afghanistan due to relative stability, the statistics on elite migration during these
years indicate an alarming level. Despite the creation of job opportunities and the need for human
resources, elites have shown little inclination to remain in Afghanistan, and this flight of elites
constitutes the greatest weakness of social capital.
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Considering the financial resources required for migration, most migrants come from the
upper classes of society; as existing evidence suggests, securing the necessary costs and skills for
migration to countries like Turkey, which serves as a gateway to Europe, is not feasible for most
Afghans. For this reason, migration from higher-income and highly educated classes is 80 percent
more than from lower-income and less educated classes.
Based on this premise, it can be confirmed that the migration of human resources, as a
primary indicator of social capital, has had a significant impact on sustainable development in
Afghan society, and Afghanistan's underdevelopment is directly related to the migration of elites
and the flight of human resources.
Another issue related to the brain drain from Afghan society in the past two decades is the
program for transferring Afghan personnel who worked with NATO and the United States. In
2009, over 48,000 Afghan employees and translators, along with their families, were relocated to
the United States, and this trend continues. Additionally, the "Special Immigration Visa" program
from industrialized countries is another factor contributing to the brain drain from Afghanistan.
Despite this, in the past two decades, a new and educated generation in Afghanistan has shown at
least a belief in the discourse of sustainable development and has achieved a relative understanding
of the need for change and reform of the current situation.
Social capital and sustainable social development in Afghanistan
After the events of September 11, the Afghan government entered global political
discourses as a global issue. From the very beginning, Western political doctrine described the
Afghan government as a "fragile state" and a security threat to the global order.
According to Newman (2009: 424), a fragile state cannot maintain public order within its
territory and foster economic and social development. Typically, due to the inability to control
territory, Western nations perceive fragile states as a threat to their security and consider
intervention in these countries' affairs as their legitimate right. Although the aim of these
interventions is stated to be the establishment of a stable government and assistance in economic
and social development, it seems that foreign interventions do not align well with the objectives
set in countries suffering from the disorder. For instance, after 2001, the international community,
led by the United States, came to Afghanistan with the goal of "nation-building." Evidence
suggests that the American state-building process in Afghanistan has failed, and alongside the
withdrawal of American and NATO military forces, the order and government they claimed to
have established collapsed.
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Therefore, the internal situation in Afghanistan can be better explained by Brook's analysis
of fragile states rather than Newman’s theory. Brook writes about fragile states: "Such states are
unable to meet their own needs; consequently, the trust and loyalty of the people are drawn towards
ethnic communities" (Ramyar, 1399: 45). In these types of states, several self-centered elites hold
power, to maintain their authority. In contrast, a stable state requires the rule of law, the guarantee
of fundamental rights and freedoms for the people, political participation, and the formation of
civil society.
This article reviews some research conducted on the relationship between social capital
and sustainable development in Afghanistan, aiming to clarify the role of social capital in
development. The main argument is based on the principle that significant efforts have been made
in Afghanistan over the past two decades for development, which have not been sustainable due
to the lack of social and cultural infrastructure; therefore, mobilizing social capital is necessary as
a long-term solution for creating development. Despite internal conflicts and the unstable social
and economic conditions in Afghanistan after 2001, alongside NATO's military presence,
international organizations have made considerable efforts in the field of economic and social
development. The problem is that integrating various forms of capital within society is essential
for creating sustainable development, and this issue has not been taken into account in
Afghanistan.
According to the Asia Foundation report (2015: 73), the results of international efforts can
be summarized in the reduction of poverty, mortality, life expectancy, and education. While the
efforts of foreign organizations may have impacted the development of the country, it seems that
the lack of attention to the growth of social capital has rendered the global community's efforts
ineffective. For instance, the Western neoliberal policy in Afghanistan has led to the destruction
of the middle class and dependency on state resources, undermined the culture of innovation, and
increased anti-social capital patterns such as corruption and distrust towards the government
(Ramyar, 1399: 51). Therefore, due to the lack of specialized personnel, oversight mechanisms,
public participation, and the absence of trust and cooperation among civil society organizations,
the economic and social conditions have not improved sufficiently.
To overcome this situation, social capital, or networks based on cooperation and trust, is
very important. According to Hamidi's argument (1395), there is a very strong intra-group social
capital in Afghan society, which can be seen among ethnic groups; however, social capital in its
modern sense is still underdeveloped in Afghanistan.
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Although in the past two decades, the initial roots of modern social capital have expanded
in the form of active legal parties and movements, the continuation and strengthening of these
could replace traditional intra-group capital. Additionally, over the past two decades, social capital
in Afghan cities has transitioned from traditional forms to urban councils that address public issues.
In analyzing social capital in Afghan society, the theoretical model of Robert Putnam and
Fukuyama can be most effectively utilized. Just as Putnam's empirical research in Italy showed
that in places with high levels of trust and cooperation, the level of development was greater
compared to those with low levels of capital. Based on Putnam's theory, it can be argued that
among ethnic groups and in the realm of ethnic interests in Afghanistan, there is a high level of
cooperation and trust; however, in analyzing the concept of cross-ethnic or modern social capital,
the same deadlock is observed that Putnam identified in underdeveloped regions.
Despite the government's inclination and the increased concentration of resources and
policies in predominantly Pashtun areas, the level of participation in government organizations,
public welfare, and social trust in democratic institutions has been at its lowest over the past two
decades, with the inefficacy of institutions and organizations being more evident. This is because,
in predominantly Pashtun areas, social capital is traditionally based on ethnic values and, most
importantly, religious beliefs, where the norms of Pashtunwali hold greater significance than the
trust of conscious cooperation. According to Hamidi (2016), people in these areas still turn to tribal
elders, community councils, and religious leaders to resolve their disputes and problems.
Consequently, it can be said that reliable civil networks have not yet formed in these
regions, and if they do exist, they are not trusted by the people. For this reason, relationships are
limited to the upper levels of society, and lower classes are less informed about the flow of
information. In contrast to the Pashtun community, among other ethnic groups, especially the
Tajiks and Hazaras, there has been a horizontal development of social networks and civil ties over
the past two decades, characterized by intra-generational gaps, urbanization, a desire for education,
and unlimited participation in national processes such as elections and civil society. Just as Pentam
believes in the success of horizontal networks, the findings of this study also indicate that
government institutions have performed better among the Tajik and Hazara communities, with
higher levels of public engagement and cooperation. It is expected that strengthening these
horizontal networks in the future will contribute to sustainable development in these areas.
In any case, cooperation, empathy, goodwill, and traditional participation are general
characteristics of Afghan society that form the foundation of national solidarity and cohesion.
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These values and norms are the greatest source of social capital, provided that they are
more flexibly related to the macro changes in society and are utilized at the national level.
On the other hand, as Pentam believes in the role of strong networks in development,
despite the ethnic and intra-group structures at the national level, especially in the past two
decades, cooperation and trust in institutions and organizations have been in a better position, with
all their shortcomings, and the effectiveness of bureaucratic organizations, given their limited
history in Afghanistan, is predicted to be positive. For instance, the activities of civil movements
over the past two decades in establishing stability and equitable access to services indicate that
social capital among the educated and literate segments of society has been growing. The level of
participation in elections and human rights activities, as well as education and public awareness,
suggests that social capital in Afghanistan has experienced unprecedented growth in the last two
decades.
The reality is that despite the growth of social capital, its impact on economic and cultural
development has not been tangible, and the sustainability of these types of networks and
relationships, which Bourdieu emphasizes in his theory, has receded just as quickly as it has grown.
Despite possessing cultural capital, social capital has not been particularly successful in
mobilizing capabilities and talents to address the major challenges and problems of society.
Despite all the shortcomings in human resources, development, and social capital in
Afghanistan over the past two decades, hopes for improvement have been ignited, opening a new
horizon for society. Afghanistan emerged from a crisis, and in less than two decades, the
achievements in social development have been significant, and strengthening them could lead to
sustainable development.
Table 1: Growth of Social Development Indicators in the Last Two Decades in Afghanistan
INDICATOR
DETAILS
CIVIL SOCIETY
According to reports, approximately 2,100 non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) were officially active in Afghanistan in the
fields of health, education, and social development over the past two
decades. Of these, 268 were foreign institutions, and the rest were
domestic (Ramyar, 2020: 156). Additionally, political parties and
organizations form another part of civil society, with 68 political
parties being active in Afghanistan during these two decades
(Ministry of Justice: 2017).
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MEDIA AND
INFORMATION
FLOW
Article 34 of the Constitution of Afghanistan affirms freedom of
expression. Subsequently, 65 visual media outlets, around 200 audio
media outlets, 25 newspapers, and hundreds of other publications
were active (Ramyar, 2020: 159).
HEALTH
In terms of health indicators, 67% of the Afghan population (as of
2016) had relative access to healthcare services (Central Statistics
Organization, 2017: 16).
EDUCATION
In the field of education, the number of students increased from 1
million to 9 million by 2016. Additionally, 60% of the country's
population was literate (Literacy Department: 2016: 16). Cultural
development in the past two decades has been a significant milestone,
showcasing the existing capacity for sustainable development in
Afghanistan.
HUMAN CAPITAL
GROWTH INDEX
According to reports from the Central Statistics Organization and the
United Nations Development Program (UNDP), approximately 60%
of Afghanistan's population consists of young people. During the first
decade, life expectancy was estimated at 63 years, and per capita
income was estimated at $561 (UNDP, 2016).
The table above shows that social and cultural development has experienced continuous
growth over the past two decades. Focusing on utilizing these potential resources could
significantly contribute to sustainable growth in Afghan society.
Conclusion
This paper examines the relationship between social capital and sustainable development
in Afghan society. Various development strategies have been tested in Afghanistan over different
periods, particularly in the last two decades, with the support of the international community and
foreign aid. The goal of these efforts has been focused on creating development in various
dimensions, which has also led to some early results.
However, as argued above, development is an internal process and requires the
comprehensive support of the people. In contrast to this argument, little attention has been paid to
internal forces, trust, and cooperation among the people in the development process in
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Afghanistan. Development priorities were designed based on a capitalist model, which mainly
engaged the middle class and skilled workforce in bureaucratic, engineered activities.
The result was superficial and premature progress in various social, cultural, and economic
areas. As discussed in the section on social capital theory, human resources and financial assets
alone are insufficient for sustainable development. In addition to these, a society requires cultural
and economic capital, as well as trust and cooperation within civil networks. This issue is taken
seriously in the policy-making processes of developed countries, where social capital is considered
a fundamental principle for societal progress.
Therefore, Afghanistan, as a country in need of sustainable development, possesses
sufficient economic, cultural, and social resources, which, if mobilized effectively, can lead to
progress. Despite the previous neglect of social capital, significant growth has been seen in Afghan
society over the past two decades, with various social networks having undergone horizontal
development. Thus, any future development-oriented policy will not achieve satisfactory results
without considering social capital. The aim is to make it easier for Afghanistan to accumulate
social capital, create a space for increasing trust, and ultimately strengthen the broader culture. To
this end, society requires extensive planning, one of which involves reflecting and rethinking social
capital. What gives the development process in our society more flexibility and resilience is the
possession of social capital.
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