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MYOCARDITIS: EPIDEMIOLOGY, DIAGNOSIS, THERAPY
Jabborov Sherbek Otabek o’g’li
Asian International University, Bukhara, Uzbekistan.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15478692
Abstract. Myocarditis is an uncommon, potentially life-threatening disease that presents
with a wide range of symptoms in children and adults. Viral infection is the most common cause
of myocarditis in developed countries, but other etiologies include bacterial and protozoal
infections, toxins, drug reactions, autoimmune diseases, giant cell myocarditis and sarcoidosis.
Acute injury leads to myocyte damage, which in turn activates the innate and humeral immune
system, leading to severe inflammation. In most patients, the immune reaction is eventually
down-regulated and the myocardium recovers. In select cases, however, persistent myocardial
inflammation leads to ongoing myocyte damage and relentless symptomatic heart failure or even
death. The diagnosis is usually made based on clinical presentation and noninvasive imaging
findings. Most patients respond well to standard heart failure therapy, although in severe cases,
mechanical circulatory support or heart transplantation is indicated. Prognosis in acute
myocarditis is generally good except in patients with giant cell myocarditis. Persistent, chronic
myocarditis usually has a progressive course but may respond to immunosuppression.
Keywords: Protozoal infections, giant cell myocarditis and sarcoidosis, myocyte damage,
heart failure, chronic myocarditis, immunosuppression.
Intraduction
In 1753, inflammation of the heart and the difficulty in discerning such was described by
a physician, Jean Baptiste Senac in Versailles, France, in his work entitled Traité des Maladies
du Coeur (Treatise on Disease of the Heart). The term myocarditis was ultimately coined by
Joseph Freidrich Sobernheim in 1837; however, the use of this term included other
cardiomyopathies that were previously undocumented including ischemic heart disease and
hypertensive heart disease. It was not until the 1980s that the World Health Organization and the
International Society and Federation of Cardiology attempted to differentiate between
myocarditis and other cardiomyopathies. 1 In general, myocarditis is identified as an
inflammatory disease of the heart muscle cells and is pathologically identified by conventional
histology and immunohistochemical techniques as an infiltration of mononuclear cells to the
myocardium. Myocarditis can be acute, subacute, or chronic and may either involve focal or
diffuse areas of the myocardium.
A recent update to the definition of myocarditis has been discussed by Caforio et al in
defining myocarditis, using immunohistochemical data, as individuals who exhibit ≥13
lymphocytes/mm2 including ≤4 monocytes/mm2 with the presence of CD3-positive T
lymphocytes ≥7 cells/mm2. This definition uses immunohistochemical data that require
endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) collection and thus is limited to a relatively smaller cohort of
patients or postmortem autopsy samples.
Moreover, although this definition of myocarditis has been widely accepted, it lacks
information on the complexity of cellular infiltrates such as macrophage subtypes
(classical/intermediate/nonclassical), effector (Th1/Th2/Th17), and regulatory (FoxP3+/CD4+)
T-lymphocyte subtypes, and thus fails to differentiate a profibrotic response from a healing
inflammatory response. Transcriptome-based analysis of biopsies may further our definition of
myocarditis.
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Epidemiology
Before the Covid-19 pandemic, the estimated global incidence of myocarditis was 1 to 10
cases per 100,000 persons per year. The highest risk was among people between 22 and 44 years
of age and among men. In the 35-to-39-year-old age group, the rate was 6.3 cases per 100,000
men and 4.6 cases per 100,000 women, with similar rates in the 20-to-44-year-old age group.The
increased use of cardiac MRI has led to a gradual rise in the reported incidence of myocarditis in
the United States, from 9.8 to 14.6 cases per 100,000 persons. Precise data on the burden of
myocarditis are available only for selected clinical settings. For instance, the incidence of
myocarditis among patients with heart failure varies from 0.6% to 5.0% according to age and
region. Among patients with chest pain who were seen in the emergency department, 3% had
acute myocarditis and pericarditis. A diagnosis of myocarditis was made on the basis of cardiac
MRI in one third of patients with a previous diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction and
nonobstructed coronary arteries. Autopsy studies in young people who died suddenly have
shown a variable incidence of myocarditis. The incidence was 14% in the prospective registry of
northeastern Italy.Among patients with advanced cancers who were treated with immune
checkpoint inhibitors, the incidence was 1.18%.During the Covid-19 pandemic, 2.6 cases of
definite or probable myocarditis and 4.1 cases of definite, probable, or possible myocarditis have
been reported per 1000 patients hospitalized for Covid-19.Finally, analysis of currently available
data on Covid-19 messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine–related myocarditis suggests an overall
incidence of 0.4 to 5.5 cases per 100,000 people in the United States and Israel.The Food and
Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency have recently estimated that the risk
of myocarditis is about 1 case in 100,000 people vaccinated against Covid-19, with a higher risk
among young males.
Diagnosis
The clinical features of myocarditis are varied. The spectrum includes asymptomatic
patients who may have electrocardiographic abnormalities; patients with signs and symptoms of
clinical heart failure and ventricular dilatation; and patients with symptoms of fulminant heart
failure and severe left ventricular dysfunction, with or without cardiac dilatation.Patients may
present with a history of a recent flulike syndrome accompanied by fever, arthralgias, and
malaise. Laboratory tests may show leukocytosis, an elevated sedimentation rate, eosinophilia, or
an elevation in the cardiac fraction of creatine kinase.
The electrocardiogram may show ventricular arrhythmias or heart block, or it may mimic
the findings in acute myocardial infarction or pericarditis. The relations between these clinical
and laboratory findings and the presence of myocarditis are obscure. Thus, the endomyocardial
biopsy remains the gold standard for the diagnosis of myocarditis, despite its limited sensitivity
and specificity.
However, the lack of association between biopsy evidence of myocarditis and the
presence of autoantibodies in patients with clinical myocarditis, the paucity of positive biopsy
findings in large cohorts of patients with suspected myocarditis,the potential discordance
between clinical and histologic features of myocarditis,and the inherent limitation of histologic
diagnosis suggest that the diagnosis of myocarditis should not be based on histologic findings
alone. Rather, it is important to include other diagnostic tests, including assays for autoimmune
serum or the induction of the major histocompatibility and intercellular adhesion molecules on
cardiac myocytes, to identify patients with autoimmune myocarditis.
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Creatine kinase levels are often elevated in myocarditis. In addition, recent studies
demonstrate that measurement of serum levels of cardiac troponin T, troponin I, or both in
patients in whom myocarditis is suspected on clinical grounds can provide evidence of
myocardial-cell damage with a level of sensitivity that exceeds that of other enzymatic
measurementsand can be correlated with the results of immunohistologic assessments.Therefore,
although the time window of detectability of creatine kinase, troponin I, and troponin T in
patients with chronic heart failure remains to be defined, we recommend that these
measurements be obtained in all patients with suspected myocarditis.
Because patients with systemic autoimmune diseases (e.g., scleroderma, lupus
erythematosus, and polymyositis) can present with myocarditis, we measure the erythrocyte
sedimentation rate and perform rheumatologic screening in patients with unexplained heart
failure and signs and symptoms of connective tissue disease. These patients often present with a
hypofunctional but relatively normal-sized ventricle and with hypoxia and exertional dyspnea
that are disproportional to the degree of cardiac dysfunction. Recent studies also suggest that
testing for the presence of viral genome in endomyocardial-biopsy specimens by PCR may
provide diagnostic and prognostic information, as well as discriminating between autoimmune
and viral myocarditis. For example, the persistence of enterovirus RNA in patients with dilated
cardiomyopathy is a strong predictor of a poor prognosis. Furthermore, the presence of viral
capsid protein in some patients with dilated cardiomyopathy may be a marker of persistent
enterovirus infection.Not all investigators have been able to identify microbial persistence. Thus,
assessment of the presence of viral genome remains largely investigational. However, we
conduct serologic tests for HIV in all patients with suspected myocarditis, because early and
effective therapy may improve overall survival and cardiac function.
Therapy
Treatment for myocarditis comprises management of arrhythmias and heart failure
according to conventional guidelines and cause-targeted therapy.
Conventional Therapy
Patients with hemodynamically stable heart failure should be treated with diuretic agents,
angiotensin-converting–enzyme inhibitors, or angiotensin-receptor blockade and beta-adrenergic
blockade. Additional treatment with aldosterone antagonists should be considered in patients
with persistent heart failure despite adequate management. Whether early initiation of treatment
should also be offered to patients with preserved LVEF in order to reduce inflammation,
remodeling, and scarring remains uncertain.
Patients with hemodynamically unstable heart failure require inotropic agents. Treatment
should be provided in an intensive care unit with respiratory and mechanical cardiopulmonary
support facilities, and referral to a tertiary care center should be considered. In patients with
cardiogenic shock who present with severe ventricular dysfunction that is refractory to medical
therapy, mechanical circulatory support with ventricular assist devices or extracorporeal
membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may be needed.
Since myocarditis can be a reversible disease, the main goals of treatment are
biventricular unloading, adequate systemic and coronary perfusion, and venous decongestion, in
an effort to prevent multiorgan dysfunction and provide a bridge to recovery, transplantation, or
use of a durable assist device. Temporary devices, such as an intraaortic balloon pump,
venoarterial ECMO, a rotary pump, or an intraaortic axial pump, should be considered.
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The use of devices that reduce left ventricular afterload, such as a centrifugal or an
intraaortic axial pump, alone or in combination with ECMO, is more likely to promote
myocardial recovery than ECMO alone. In recent years, left ventricular unloading through a
transcutaneously placed axial flow pump (Impella; Abiomed) has been shown to be a viable
treatment option for patients with cardiogenic shock, both as the sole left ventricular support
when right ventricular function is preserved and in combination with extracorporeal life support
or with a right-sided Impella pump. In the absence of protocols for temporary mechanical
circulatory support, the choice of device depends on local experience and on right ventricular
function. If the patient cannot be weaned from mechanical circulatory support after 3 to 4 weeks,
a durable left ventricular assist device or transplantation should be considered.
There are no specific recommendations for the treatment of arrhythmias and conduction
disturbances in patients with myocarditis. After the acute phase, management should be in line
with current guidelines on arrhythmia and device implantation. Since myocarditis is potentially
reversible, a step-by-step approach is suggested during the acute phase. Pacing may be needed
for complete atrioventricular block. Use of an implantable cardioverter–defibrillator should be
deferred until the acute episode has resolved, generally 3 to 6 months after the initiation of the
acute phase, and a wearable cardioverter–defibrillator can be considered as a bridge.
In competitive athletes, physical activity should be restricted during the acute phase of
myocarditis and for a period of 3 to 6 months subsequently, according to the clinical severity and
duration of the acute phase. After resolution, clinical reassessment is indicated before the athlete
resumes competitive sport. Preparticipation screening should be performed every 6 months
during follow-up.
Conclusions
In the past 30 years, major progress has been made in our understanding of the regulation
and diversity of cardiac inflammatory pathways implicated in the pathogenesis of myocarditis.
The medical community looks forward to the development of standardized treatment
regimens for patients with acute myocarditis. Myocarditis remains an important clinical
condition from perinatal to adult timeframes. Significant challenges remain in regards to firm
diagnoses, clear management and treatment approaches, and ultimate consequences of acute
disease. Viruses play an important role in causing myocarditis, yet their precise contributions are
masked by varied clinical presentations and progression, and the widely varied type and quality
of molecular tools and samples used to establish an association of the disease phenotype with
certain cardiotropic viral agents. This scrambled situation in humans stands in contrast to the
huge div of sterling work that has been conducted in in vitro and in vivo models wherein
viruses and their mechanistic impact on host cells and immune systems has been documented
elegantly. Similarly, many promising avenues of therapeutic intervention, pursued in model
systems, have yet to be studied in humans given the relative infrequency of a viral heart disease
diagnosis, the highly variable timepoint at which patients present after the initiation of their
illness, and the near impossibility, to date, in establishing the actual onset of viral myocarditis in
people.
A global approach to human studies is long overdue. A global cohort, with standardized
clinical, imaging and immunovirological techniques, highly SOP-driven sample accrual, and a
reset on our collective views of pathogenesis and disease course would open a new avenue for
effective reduction in morbidity and mortality through supportive and pharmacological care.
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Learnings from other human pathogenic viral conditions, caused by viruses that rarely
cause human heart disease, may also spawn new approaches to prevention, detection, and
intervention.
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