The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
60
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
TYPE
Original Research
PAGE NO.
60-75
10.37547/tajpslc/Volume07Issue05-10
OPEN ACCESS
SUBMITED
17 March 2025
ACCEPTED
13 April 2025
PUBLISHED
15 May 2025
VOLUME
Vol.07 Issue05 2025
CITATION
Christopher M. Osazuwa, Maryjane Y. Oghogho, Opinion D. Iyamba,
Anthony Ofoyetan, Sunday U. Brownson, Irenen I. Osayuwamwen, &
Henshaw E. Ekeng. (2025). Human rights violations in counterinsurgency
operations: a gender perspective. The American Journal of Political Science
Law and Criminology, 7(05), 60
–
75.
https://doi.org/10.37547/tajpslc/Volume07Issue05-10
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Original content from this work may be used under the terms
of the creative commons attributes 4.0 License.
Human rights violations in
counterinsurgency
operations: a gender
perspective
Christopher M. Osazuwa
Postgraduate Student, City University, Cambodia
Maryjane Y. Oghogho
Postgraduate Student, City University, Cambodia
Opinion D. Iyamba
Postgraduate Student, City University, Cambodia
Anthony Ofoyetan
Postgraduate Student, City University, Cambodia
Sunday U. Brownson
Postgraduate Student, City University, Cambodia
Irenen I. Osayuwamwen
Postgraduate Student, City University, Cambodia
Henshaw E. Ekeng
Postgraduate Student, City University, Cambodia
Abstract:
Counterinsurgency (COIN) operations are
designed to restore stability and neutralize insurgencies
but often result in significant human rights violations.
These include extrajudicial killings, torture, sexual
violence, and forced displacement, disproportionately
affecting marginalized populations, especially women
and girls. This study examines the gendered dimensions
of these violations and seeks to uncover systemic
inequalities that exacerbate their impact. The research
aims to analyze human rights abuses in COIN through a
gendered lens, emphasizing the necessity for gender-
sensitive strategies to mitigate harm. The study adopts
feminist
security
theories,
emphasizing
the
intersectionality of gender, ethnicity, and socio-
economic status in conflict contexts. A qualitative
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
61
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
research design integrates thematic literature reviews,
case studies, and international reports, with data
analyzed to highlight recurring patterns of gender-
specific violations. Case studies from Colombia,
Afghanistan,
and
Nigeria
illustrate
the
disproportionate impact of COIN on women and
marginalized groups, showcasing systemic issues such
as sexual violence, displacement, and the lack of
accountability. Findings reveal that COIN operations
often intensify existing inequalities, with women facing
sexual violence and men experiencing torture and
forced recruitment. The neglect of gender-specific
needs perpetuates cycles of violence and hinders
recovery. Structural weaknesses in accountability and
limited implementation of international human rights
standards exacerbate these issues. This study
underscores the importance of integrating gender-
sensitive
policies
and
robust
accountability
mechanisms
into
COIN
frameworks.
Recommendations
include
enhancing
legal
protections, supporting local organizations, and
prioritizing inclusive peacebuilding efforts to ensure
equity and justice for affected populations.
Keywords:
Counterinsurgency,
Human
Rights
Violations, Gender-Based Violence, Feminist Security,
Intersectionality.
Introduction:
Human rights frameworks establish the
legal, ethical, and moral basis for protecting individual
and collective dignity in armed conflicts, including
counterinsurgency
operations.
International
instruments like the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) underpin these frameworks, which
prioritise the safeguarding of life, liberty, and security,
even in times of conflict (Hannum & Anaya, 2023). The
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) complement these
principles by defining the civil, political, and socio-
economic
aspects
of
rights,
specifying
the
responsibilities of state and non-state actors in COIN
operations (Wallace, 2020).
Counterinsurgency operations encompass a range of
strategies that integrate military, political, and socio-
economic approaches to address insurgencies and
stabilise areas affected by rebellion or terrorism. COIN
strategies originated in colonial and post-colonial
conflicts, subsequently evolving into organised
frameworks after World War II. Contemporary
counterinsurgency
strategies,
exemplified
by
operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, aim to integrate
military action with socio-political stabilisation by
fostering local governance and development initiatives
to "win hearts and minds" (Roy, 2022). COIN operations
frequently lead to significant human rights violations,
disproportionately impacting vulnerable populations,
especially in occupied or contested areas.
International humanitarian law (IHL), especially the
Geneva Conventions, stipulates the protection of non-
combatants, such as women, children, and displaced
persons, in times of conflict. Violations including
extrajudicial killings, sexual violence, and forced
displacement frequently characterise COIN operations,
often rationalised by states as necessary for security
(Noh, 2022). The systemic abuses underscore the
conflict between operational goals and human rights
responsibilities, with marginalised groups, such as
women and indigenous populations, disproportionately
affected by the violence.
The gendered effects of COIN are significant yet
insufficiently
examined.
Women
and
children
experience disproportionate impacts, including sexual
violence, trafficking, and displacement, as direct
outcomes of COIN activities. Insurgent groups utilise
women as combatants or as representations of
community honour, whereas state forces are often
associated with systematic sexual violence (Cook, 2021).
Gender-sensitive frameworks, including the Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW), highlight the unequal effects of
armed conflicts on women and promote their
protection and participation in conflict resolution
(Engström & Heikkilä, 2022). United Nations Security
Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security
emphasises the necessity of incorporating gender-
sensitive approaches into counterinsurgency strategies
to facilitate inclusive peace processes and avert
additional violations.
The implementation of COIN operations worldwide has
produced
varied
outcomes.
The
U.S.-led
counterinsurgency campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq,
while intended for nation-building, led to civilian
displacement, systemic abuses, and enduring instability
(Head, 2024). State-backed COIN strategies in Colombia
aimed at addressing narco-terrorism and insurgencies
have had a disproportionate effect on indigenous
women, resulting in significant displacement and an
increase in gender-based violence (Granovsky-Larsen,
2023).
In Nigeria, counterinsurgency efforts against Boko
Haram have been hindered by allegations of
extrajudicial killings, gender-based violence, and
aggressive military tactics, which have intensified
distrust among local communities (Salihu, 2021).
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
62
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
Statement of Problem
Counter-insurgency
(COIN)
operations,
while
ostensibly aimed at restoring security and eliminating
insurgent threats, frequently result in systemic human
rights violations, disproportionately impacting civilian
populations. These abuses, including extrajudicial
killings, torture, forced disappearances, and gender-
based violence (GBV), are not isolated incidents but
rather stem from militarized strategies prioritizing
coercion and control. This militarized approach often
dehumanizes civilians, rendering them vulnerable to
widespread violence, including the strategic use of GBV
as a tool of warfare to destabilize communities and
reinforce
patriarchal
structures.
While
GBV
disproportionately
affects
women
and
girls,
exacerbating existing inequalities, men and boys also
experience gender-specific violence, often reflecting
societal constructs of masculinity, such as forced
recruitment and emasculating torture. This broader
spectrum of gendered violence is frequently
overlooked in COIN analyses, which tend to focus
primarily on female victimhood. Furthermore,
structural and cultural factors, such as patriarchal
norms and gender hierarchies, contribute to the
perpetuation
of
these
abuses
and
impede
accountability. Despite international frameworks like
CEDAW and UNSCR 1325, which advocate for the
protection of women and gender-sensitive approaches
in
armed
conflict,
inadequate
national-level
implementation, weak institutional frameworks, and
insufficient political will result in widespread impunity
for perpetrators, perpetuating cycles of violence and
injustice. This research addresses this critical gap by
examining the specific gendered dimensions of human
rights violations within COIN contexts and the systemic
failures in accountability mechanisms.
Research Questions
•
How
do
counterinsurgency
operations
contribute to systemic human rights violations,
particularly through militarized strategies?
•
What are the gender-specific impacts of
human rights violations in counterinsurgency
contexts?
•
How
can
gender-sensitive
frameworks
improve accountability and mitigate human rights
violations in counterinsurgency operations?
Objectives
•
To analyze the systemic nature of human
rights violations within counterinsurgency operations.
•
To investigate the gender-specific dimensions
of human rights violations in counterinsurgency
contexts.
•
To propose actionable policy recommendations
for integrating gender-sensitive approaches into
counterinsurgency frameworks.
Significance of the Study
The study's results will benefit multiple stakeholders.
Policymakers and military strategists can employ
gender-sensitive insights to formulate COIN strategies
that reduce civilian harm and comply with international
human rights standards. Secondly, human rights
organisations and advocacy groups will acquire a
nuanced comprehension of the gendered effects of
COIN,
allowing
them
to
formulate
targeted
interventions and ensure accountability for violators.
This work will be beneficial for academic researchers
and students in furthering feminist security scholarship
and investigating novel methods of conflict resolution.
Ultimately, survivors of COIN-related abuses, especially
women and marginalised groups, will benefit from
policies and programs shaped by this research, as these
initiatives are more likely to address their specific needs
and vulnerabilities.
Theoretical Framework: Feminist Theories of Security
This study is based on feminist security theories that
critique state-centric security paradigms, highlighting
the impact of gender dynamics on experiences of
conflict and violence. Feminist perspectives, in contrast
to traditional approaches that emphasise territorial
integrity and state sovereignty, prioritise the daily
insecurities experienced by marginalised groups,
especially women and girls (Shepherd, 2020). These
perspectives contend that conflict disproportionately
impacts women via direct violence, such as sexual
assault,
and
indirect
consequences,
including
displacement, loss of livelihoods, and the intensification
of pre-existing gender inequalities (True, 2021).
Feminist scholarship within counterinsurgency (COIN)
operations illustrates that militarised tactics frequently
reinforce patriarchal structures, resulting in heightened
violence and exclusion of women. COIN strategies,
including forced displacement and indiscriminate
attacks, often overlook gendered vulnerabilities, leading
to systemic injustices that are frequently neglected in
traditional analyses (McLeod, 2022).
Structural violence, a key concept in feminist security
studies, elucidates how societal structures and
institutions cause harm by hindering access to essential
needs and rights (Galtung, 1990, cited in Wibben et al.,
2020). COIN-related human rights violations are not
incidental; they are embedded within systemic
inequalities that prioritise militarised approaches over
human security. Women, especially in rural or
indigenous
communities,
are
disproportionately
affected by these systemic breaches.
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
63
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
Intersectionality serves as a crucial analytical
framework in feminist security studies, elucidating
how overlapping identities
—
such as gender, race,
ethnicity, and socio-economic status
—
intensify the
effects of violence in counterinsurgency operations
(Crenshaw, 1989, cited in Berry, 2021). Indigenous
women may experience increased risks resulting from
the intersection of state violence, insurgent activity,
and societal discrimination. Identifying these
intersections is crucial for formulating effective
responses to human rights violations associated with
COIN.
This study incorporates a gender perspective into COIN
analysis, transcending gender-neutral frameworks that
presuppose a uniform impact of human rights abuses.
This approach highlights the unique experiences of
women, men, and non-binary individuals in conflict,
influenced by their social roles, cultural norms, and
resource accessibility (Duncanson & Woodward,
2021). Women may encounter increased risks of sexual
violence, whereas men may be subjected to forced
conscription or torture. Additionally, non-binary and
LGBTQ+ individuals frequently face unique forms of
violence that are often overlooked in conventional
security discussions. To address these varied impacts,
it is essential to implement tailored policies and
interventions that prioritise human security rather
than relying solely on militaristic counterinsurgency
strategies (Shepherd & Jarvis, 2023).
METHODOLOGY
The methodology employed for studying Human Rights
Violations in Counterinsurgency Operations: A Gender
Perspective is rooted in a qualitative analytical
framework. This methodology integrates case studies,
thematic literature reviews, and insights derived from
international reports to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the research topic. The qualitative
approach is particularly well-suited to exploring
complex phenomena, such as the interplay of human
rights and gender issues in conflict contexts, as it
allows for depth and contextual understanding.
Human Rights in Counterinsurgency Operations
•
The Concept of Counterinsurgency
Counterinsurgency (COIN) denotes a collection of
methods and methodologies utilised by state or non-
state entities to combat armed insurgencies that
threaten political authority or territorial integrity. In
contrast to traditional military operations, COIN
prioritises a combination of military and non-military
strategies designed to neutralise rebel factions while
concurrently tackling the socio-political and economic
factors that contribute to their creation (Kilcullen,
2020). This dual strategy emphasises the necessity of
combining military power with efforts to gain public
trust and re-establish governance, commonly referred
to as the “hearts and minds” strategy.
The scope of COIN encompasses more than battlefield
confrontations, integrating components such as
intelligence
collection,
law
enforcement,
and
governance changes. COIN efforts often function at the
convergence of military aims, humanitarian issues, and
legal principles. Counterinsurgency is equally a political
and military endeavour, requiring the cooperation of
many state and non-state entities to guarantee
legitimacy and sustainability (Mampilly & Stewart,
2022). Nonetheless, despite these ambitions, COIN
techniques frequently result in considerable human
rights abuses, prompting serious questions over their
legal and ethical ramifications.
Counterinsurgency techniques focus on the dual aims of
curtailing insurgent actions and ensuring civilian
allegiance. To attain these aims, COIN employs a
synthesis of military, psychological, and socio-political
strategies. A fundamental military approach consists of
targeted operations designed to neutralise insurgent
groups, frequently executed by airstrikes, raids, and
surveillance-based interventions. These actions are
often facilitated by intelligence systems aimed at
dismantling rebel networks and thwarting their
reconstitution (Nagl, 2021). Moreover, security zones
are created to separate insurgents from civilian
populations; yet these measures may adversely affect
civilian livelihoods and prompt enquiries regarding
proportionality.
In addition to military operations, COIN prioritises non-
violent strategies, particularly population-centric
initiatives aimed at tackling the fundamental causes of
insurgency. These policies typically encompass the
delivery of fundamental services, including education,
healthcare, and infrastructure, alongside economic
reforms designed to mitigate poverty and inequality
(Cohen et al., 2022). Psychological operations (PSYOP)
enhance these initiatives by subverting insurgent
narratives and fostering state legitimacy via media
campaigns and public engagement. A crucial strategy
entails involving local stakeholders, including traditional
governance systems and community leaders, to
promote localised solutions and bolster the state's
credibility. Nonetheless, the efficacy of these measures
is frequently compromised by the concurrent
implementation of coercive strategies, like mass
detentions and forced relocations, which estrange
civilian populations (Krieg, 2020).
Although these strategies fit with the primary goals of
stabilising conflict zones and reinstating governance,
they are often condemned for their propensity to
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
64
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
intensify human rights violations. The indiscriminate
use of force, capricious detentions, and the
deterioration of community trust continue to pose
significant issues, highlighting the necessity for a more
equitable and rights-oriented strategy in COIN
operations (Milanovic, 2021).
Counterinsurgency operations frequently exist in a
grey zone were national security imperatives clash
with international legal standards and ethical
commitments. A significant legal quandary emerges
from the application of force in civilian-populated
regions, often leading to collateral harm and
undermining the concept of difference as outlined in
international humanitarian law (Geneva Conventions,
1949). Drone attacks aimed at insurgents have faced
criticism due to their elevated civilian casualty rates,
prompting enquiries into the proportionality of these
measures (Krieg, 2020). Such techniques frequently
diminish public trust and exacerbate opposition, thus
compromising the long-term goals of COIN.
A significant concern is the prevalent practice of
detention without trial, frequently rationalised as a
counter-terrorism strategy. These activities often
contravene the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights (ICCPR) and incite animosity among
impacted communities (United Nations, 2021).
Moreover, employing torture and other harsh
methods to obtain intelligence from detainees
infringes upon essential human rights and undermines
the legitimacy of counterinsurgency players (Daly,
2023). Alongside imprisonment procedures, the
employment of targeted murders, especially by
unmanned aerial vehicles, has ignited ethical
discussions regarding the absence of transparency and
due process in these operations. These acts disrupt the
equilibrium between safeguarding state security and
maintaining the right to life and procedural fairness
(Milanovic, 2021).
The socio-economic ramifications of COIN further
exacerbate its ethical quandaries. Strategies including
scorched-earth tactics, coerced relocations, and the
obliteration of civilian infrastructure frequently yield
enduring consequences for at-risk populations. These
measures not only intensify humanitarian crises but
also contravene international rules safeguarding the
rights of displaced individuals and communities (Cohen
et al., 2022). The impunity frequently afforded to state
actors engaged in counterinsurgency exacerbates
these problems, further estranging impacted
communities and undermining the rule of law (Daly,
2023).
•
Human Rights Abuses in COIN
Counterinsurgency operations (COIN) have been linked
to various human rights violations, such as
disproportionate force, extrajudicial killings, torture,
and enforced disappearances. These violations
frequently arise from the pressing security demands
that COIN techniques impose on military and security
forces. The excessive application of force is most
apparent in situations where military personnel are
assigned to swiftly eliminate perceived threats, resulting
in a neglect of proportionality and necessity in their
conduct. In Nigeria's struggle against Boko Haram,
reports have recorded instances where military
operations led to substantial civilian casualties,
prompting concerns regarding the legality and ethics of
these activities (Lenshie et al., 2022; Ibukun, 2020). The
dependence
on
extensive
mechanisation
and
weaponry, although aimed at safeguarding troops, may
unintentionally intensify violence against civilian
populations, as the separation caused by mechanised
forces frequently results in diminished responsibility
and control (Mehrl, 2022).
Extrajudicial killings and torture are prevalent in
counterinsurgency
environments,
frequently
rationalised under the pretext of national security. The
normalisation of these methods can foster a culture of
impunity within security personnel, rendering human
rights
breaches
commonplace
rather
than
extraordinary.
In
Nigeria,
the
military's
counterinsurgency operations have been tainted by
accusations of extrajudicial executions and torture of
both suspected rebels and civilians (Ibukun, 2020;
Onuoha et al., 2020). These activities not only
contravene international human rights standards but
also
erode
the
legitimacy
of
the
state's
counterinsurgency initiatives, as they estrange the
communities that COIN seeks to safeguard and
persuade (Blair, 2022).
Forced disappearances are a serious violation of human
rights linked to counterinsurgency operations. The
phenomena frequently transpire in settings where
security personnel function with limited supervision,
resulting in the kidnapping of individuals alleged to be
involved in insurgency-related activities. These activities
are especially detrimental as they engender fear within
communities and foster a climate of mistrust between
citizens and the state (Ibukun, 2020). The absence of
accountability for these activities intensifies the cycle of
violence and human rights violations, leaving the
relatives of the vanished without recourse or justice.
Moreover, COIN operations often violate international
humanitarian law (IHL). International Humanitarian Law
(IHL), which regulates armed conflict and aims to
safeguard non-combatants, is frequently overlooked
during counterinsurgency operations. The concepts of
distinction and proportionality, which mandate fighters
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
65
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
to discern between military objectives and civilians
while minimising civilian casualties, are frequently
contravened in COIN operations (Ibukun, 2020). The
indiscriminate deployment of airstrikes or artillery in
populated regions might result in considerable human
fatalities, violating International Humanitarian Law
(IHL) (Romita, 2023).
Furthermore, the rationalisation of military operations
under the guise of national security frequently results
in a more extensive deterioration of legal standards
and human rights safeguards. Presenting COIN as an
essential reaction to existential threats may foster a
permissive atmosphere for human rights abuses, as
nations prioritise military goals over legal and ethical
principles (Ibukun, 2020). This weakens the rule of law
and maintains a cycle of violence that may incite
additional
insurgency,
as
communities
grow
disillusioned with the state's ability to safeguard their
rights and welfare (Blair, 2022).
•
Institutional Challenges
The institutional challenges associated with human
rights in counterinsurgency operations (COIN) are
significant, particularly regarding weak accountability
mechanisms and the resulting impunity for
perpetrators of human rights abuses. These challenges
undermine the effectiveness of COIN strategies and
perpetuate cycles of violence and mistrust between
state forces and civilian populations.
Weak accountability mechanisms are a pervasive issue
in COIN contexts. The lack of robust systems to hold
military and security personnel accountable for their
actions often leads to a culture of impunity. In many
cases, military operations are conducted with minimal
oversight, allowing abuses such as excessive use of
force, extrajudicial killings, and torture to occur
without repercussions (Buzdar et al., 2023; Karakas,
2022). For instance, in Nigeria's ongoing conflict with
Boko Haram, reports indicate that military personnel
have engaged in human rights violations, yet few have
faced disciplinary action or legal consequences (Buzdar
et al., 2023; Karakas, 2022). This absence of
accountability not only emboldens perpetrators but
also discourages victims from reporting abuses, as they
may fear retaliation or believe that their complaints
will be ignored (Buzdar et al., 2023; Karakas, 2022).
The lack of justice for victims is another critical aspect
of the institutional challenges faced in COIN
operations. Victims of human rights abuses often
encounter significant barriers when seeking redress.
These barriers include bureaucratic delays, a lack of
resources within the judicial system, and societal
stigma associated with reporting abuses (Buzdar et al.,
2023; Khan et al., 2023). In many instances, victims
may feel that pursuing justice is futile, particularly when
political figures or military leaders are involved, as they
may exert influence to downplay or dismiss allegations
of misconduct (Buzdar et al., 2023; Karakas, 2022). This
perception of futility can lead to a broader sense of
disillusionment with the state and its institutions,
further alienating communities that COIN operations
aim to protect (Buzdar et al., 2023; Karakas, 2022).
Moreover, the psychological impact of impunity on
victims cannot be overstated. The absence of justice and
recognition for their suffering can exacerbate feelings of
trauma and helplessness, perpetuating a cycle of
victimization (Karakas, 2022; Niezen, 2022). Victims may
experience a profound sense of betrayal when the very
institutions meant to protect them fail to deliver justice,
leading to long-term psychological effects and
diminished trust in state authorities (Karakas, 2022;
Niezen, 2022). This erosion of trust complicates COIN
efforts, as effective counterinsurgency relies on the
cooperation and support of local populations.
Gendered Dimensions of Human Rights Violations
The gendered aspects of human rights breaches,
especially during armed conflict, expose a troubling
trend of targeted gender-based violence (GBV) that
disproportionately impacts women and girls. This
violence occurs in multiple forms, including the
utilisation of rape as a weapon of war and sexual
exploitation and abuse by both state and non-state
entities. Comprehending these processes is essential for
tackling the wider ramifications of gender-based
violence in conflict environments.
•
Targeted Gender-Based Violence (GBV)
The use of rape as a weapon of war has been thoroughly
documented across numerous conflicts, functioning
both as a form of physical violence and as a mechanism
for psychological warfare and social destabilisation.
Sexual violence is systematically utilised to humiliate
and demoralise communities, with a particular focus on
women as representations of ethnic or national identity
(Wieringen, 2020). In the Democratic Republic of Congo,
armed groups have employed rape as a strategic tool to
instil fear and exert control over populations, resulting
in extensive suffering and trauma among survivors
(Wieringen, 2020). This type of violence is not
incidental; it is frequently premeditated and carried out
to attain military goals, thus underscoring the idea that
sexual violence is a fundamental component of warfare
(Wieringen, 2020).
The repercussions of conflict-related sexual violence
(CRSV) reach well beyond the immediate physical
injuries sustained by survivors. Studies demonstrate
that
survivors
frequently
encounter
enduring
psychological and social consequences, intensified by
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
66
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
detrimental gender norms and societal stigma (Rubini,
2023; Hourani et al., 2021). The normalisation of
gender-based violence in conflict settings fosters an
environment in which such acts are tolerated or
justified, thereby further entrenching gender
inequality and violence (Rubini, 2023; Hourani et al.,
2021). The cycle of violence persists due to insufficient
accountability for perpetrators, which deters survivors
from pursuing justice and healing (Hourani et al.,
2021).
Sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) by both state and
non-state actors constitute a significant dimension of
gender-based violence (GBV) in conflict zones. Reports
from diverse humanitarian contexts indicate that
peacekeepers, military personnel, and armed groups
exploit vulnerable populations, especially women and
girls, for sexual favours or services (Ellsberg et al.,
2020; Quadri, 2020). Exploitation frequently takes
place in situations where individuals are marginalised
as a result of displacement, economic instability, or the
disintegration of social structures (Ellsberg et al., 2020;
Murphy et al., 2021). The power dynamics present in
these situations facilitate abuse, as individuals in
positions of authority exploit their power over
vulnerable persons (Ellsberg et al., 2020; Quadri,
2020).
The prevalence of SEA is exacerbated by institutional
shortcomings in addressing and preventing these
abuses. Victims of sexual exploitation and abuse often
encounter substantial obstacles to reporting incidents,
such as fear of retaliation, distrust in authorities, and
societal stigma (Ellsberg et al., 2020; Murphy et al.,
2021). The lack of accountability for perpetrators
fosters a culture of silence and complicity (Murphy et
al., 2021). The absence of justice adversely affects
individual survivors and diminishes the credibility of
institutions responsible for safeguarding human rights
and ensuring peace (Ellsberg et al., 2020; Murphy et al.,
2021).
•
Impact on Women and Girls
The gendered aspects of human rights violations,
especially in conflict and post-conflict contexts,
significantly affect women and girls. These dimensions
are evident in various forms of violence and
exploitation, such as displacement, trafficking, forced
marriages, and the social stigma and marginalisation
that frequently accompany these violations.
Armed conflict-induced displacement frequently
intensifies the vulnerabilities faced by women and
girls, rendering them more prone to exploitation, such
as trafficking and forced marriages. In regions affected
by conflict, the disintegration of social structures and
the loss of livelihoods may compel families to engage
in desperate measures, such as marrying off daughters
at young ages for economic survival (Ellsberg et al.,
2020; Murphy et al., 2021). This practice is notably
common in situations where traditional norms are
challenged, and families encounter heightened
economic pressures resulting from conflict (Ellsberg et
al., 2020; Murphy et al., 2021). Additionally, population
displacement fosters conditions conducive to the
proliferation of trafficking networks, which exploit
vulnerable women and girls in their pursuit of safety or
economic opportunities (Ellsberg et al., 2020; Bourey,
2024). Reports from South Sudan indicate that women
and girls displaced by conflict face an increased risk of
trafficking for sexual exploitation or forced labour
(Ellsberg et al., 2020; Khalaf et al., 2022).
The repercussions of these violations extend beyond
immediate physical injury, encompassing enduring
psychological and social impacts. Individuals who have
survived trafficking and forced marriages frequently
encounter considerable difficulties in reintegrating into
their
communities,
often
facing
stigma
and
marginalisation (Mitiku, 2023; Murphy et al., 2021). The
societal perception of women who have faced violence
or exploitation may result in their exclusion from social,
economic, and political domains, thereby reinforcing
gender inequalities (Quadri, 2020; Murphy et al., 2021).
The marginalisation is exacerbated by cultural norms
that frequently assign blame to victims for the violence
they endure, thereby perpetuating a cycle of silence and
shame that hinders survivors from pursuing assistance
or
justice
(Gutiérrez,
2020;
Ocktaviana
&
Kamaruzzaman, 2021).
The stigma linked to gender-based violence can
adversely impact the mental health of survivors.
Numerous women and girls encounter feelings of
shame, isolation, and hopelessness after experiencing
violence, potentially resulting in enduring psychological
trauma (Rubini, 2023; Jong, 2023). Insufficient support
systems, such as mental health services and social
reintegration programs, intensify these challenges,
forcing survivors to manage their recovery in isolation
(Khalaf et al., 2022; Young & Anazodo, 2020).
•
Marginalized Masculinities
In conflict settings, the notion of marginalised
masculinities underscores the distinct vulnerabilities
and experiences of men and boys, who frequently face
violence and exploitation that contest conventional
understandings of masculinity. Forced recruitment into
armed groups is a significant issue, especially in areas
affected by extended conflict. Young boys are often
subjected to recruitment efforts and coerced into
joining militias or armed forces through threats of
violence or death. This forced induction removes their
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
67
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
agency and subjects them to significant psychological
and physical trauma, as they are frequently compelled
to engage in violent acts against their will. The
implications of these experiences are significant,
resulting in an identity crisis as these boys contend
with societal expectations of masculinity that
emphasise strength and aggression, even as they face
victimisation.
The torture of men and boys in conflict settings
complicates the understanding of masculinities.
Reports from multiple conflict zones indicate that men
frequently endure severe treatment, including physical
and sexual torture, which undermines their perceived
masculinity. This violence serves as a mechanism for
control and a strategy to induce fear in communities,
with the humiliation of men potentially disrupting
family dynamics and undermining community
cohesion. The psychological effects of torture can
result in enduring mental health problems, such as
depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
which are frequently intensified by societal stigma
related to male victimhood.
The convergence of masculinity and victimisation
highlights the societal pressures experienced by men
following incidents of violence. Men subjected to
torture or forced recruitment may encounter
considerable social stigma, as prevailing norms
typically assert that men ought to exhibit strength and
resilience. The stigma may result in marginalisation, as
individuals may be perceived as less masculine or as
failures in their societal roles. As a result, numerous
men may feel pressured to hide their experiences,
thereby continuing cycles of trauma and isolation.
The immediate effects of violence should be examined
alongside the broader societal implications of
marginalised masculinities in conflict contexts. The
normalisation of violence against men may foster a
culture of impunity, resulting in the neglect or
minimisation of the suffering experienced by male
victims. This dynamic impacts not only the individuals
directly involved but also has implications for
peacebuilding
and
reconciliation
efforts,
as
communities endeavour to address the needs of all
victims of violence.
•
Intersectionality in COIN-Related Violations
In COIN operations, individual experiences are
influenced not only by gender but also significantly by
race, ethnicity, and socio-economic status. Women
from marginalised ethnic groups frequently encounter
heightened vulnerabilities in conflict situations.
Women may encounter both gender-based violence
(GBV) and ethnic violence, which can present as
targeted attacks, sexual violence, and forced
displacement. Sánchez et al. (2020); Nsabimana (2024).
The convergence of gender and ethnicity results in
distinct manifestations of violence that existing
frameworks, which examine gender independently, fail
to adequately address. During the Rwandan Genocide,
Tutsi women experienced systematic sexual violence as
a component of a broader strategy aimed at the
eradication of their ethnic group, demonstrating how
ethnic identity can intensify gendered violence in
conflict situations (Munala, 2023).
Furthermore, socio-economic status significantly
influences individuals' experiences of violence and their
access to resources and support. Women and girls from
lower socio-economic backgrounds exhibit increased
vulnerability to gender-based violence due to limited
access to education, healthcare, and legal protections
(Mingude & Dejene, 2021). Economic instability during
COIN operations may compel families to engage in
detrimental practices, including forced marriages or
transactional sex, as strategies for survival (Paudel R,
2020). Such practices violate human rights and
perpetuate cycles of poverty and inequality, further
marginalising vulnerable populations.
The influence of intersectionality is apparent in the
experiences of men and boys within COIN contexts.
Marginalised masculinities, especially among individuals
from lower socio-economic backgrounds or minority
ethnic groups, may result in coerced recruitment into
armed groups or exploitation as child soldiers (Cuxart et
al., 2021). These experiences contest conventional
understandings of masculinity, as young men frequently
face pressure to assume roles that conflict with societal
norms of strength and independence. Forced
recruitment has significant psychological consequences,
resulting in trauma and identity crises that hinder
reintegration into society after conflict (Nabaggala et al.,
2021).
The stigma linked to being a victim of violence varies
considerably according to race, ethnicity, and socio-
economic status. Men and boys subjected to sexual
violence in conflict situations often encounter increased
stigma,
especially
in
cultures
that
prioritise
hypermasculinity and notions of strength (Flannigan et
al., 2022). This stigma may inhibit individuals from
seeking assistance or reporting abuses, thereby
perpetuating a cycle of silence and suffering.
Cases Studies
Case Study 1: Columbia
Colombia is a country located in South America,
bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuela
to the east, Brazil to the southeast, Peru to the south,
Ecuador to the west, and Panama to the northwest. It is
known for its diverse culture
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
68
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
Indigenous women in Colombia have encountered
distinct challenges throughout the prolonged conflict,
frequently positioned at the convergence of various
forms of violence. The Colombian government has
implemented counterinsurgency strategies to address
guerrilla groups, including the Revolutionary Armed
Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the National Liberation
Army (ELN). These strategies have often led to human
rights violations, especially concerning indigenous
populations (Ismiati, 2023). The militarization of
indigenous territories has resulted in heightened
violence, with armed groups competing for control
over land and resources, frequently neglecting the
rights and autonomy of indigenous communities.
Indigenous women exhibit heightened vulnerability in
this context, frequently experiencing both gender-
based violence and the wider consequences of armed
conflict. Evidence suggests that state forces and
paramilitary groups have perpetrated sexual violence
against Indigenous women as a wartime strategy,
intended to instil fear and assert control over
communities (Angeletti, 2021). This violence infringes
upon the individual rights of women and undermines
the social structure of Indigenous communities by
disrupting traditional roles and relationships (Foláyan
et al., 2022). Sexual violence employed as a weapon in
conflict results in significant psychological and social
consequences, contributing to the stigmatisation and
marginalisation of survivors in their communities
(Chaney, 2022).
The displacement of indigenous communities in
Colombia has intensified due to COIN strategies, as
military operations frequently result in forced
evacuations and the destruction of homes and
livelihoods. Indigenous women experience elevated
risks during displacement, facing greater vulnerability
to sexual violence and exploitation in refugee camps or
urban environments (Jang & Kim, 2022). The
insufficient protection and support services for
displaced women exacerbate their vulnerability,
limiting their access to healthcare, legal assistance, and
social support networks (Jang & Kim, 2021).
The intersection of gender, ethnicity, and socio-
economic
status
significantly
influences
the
experiences of displaced indigenous women.
Indigenous women encounter systemic discrimination
that restricts their access to resources and
opportunities, hindering their ability to reconstruct
their lives following displacement (Amanullah et al.,
2022). The cumulative impacts of violence,
displacement, and marginalisation may result in
enduring trauma and obstruct initiatives aimed at
recovery and empowerment (Guo et al., 2021).
Case Study 2: Afghanistan
The counterinsurgency efforts led by the United States
in Afghanistan have significantly impacted the human
rights situation, especially regarding the rights of Afghan
women. This case study examines human rights
violations committed by international forces and
insurgents,
emphasising
the
gender-specific
consequences of these violations.
The counterinsurgency in Afghanistan, led by the United
States and initiated following the September 11 attacks,
sought to dismantle the Taliban regime and establish a
stable democratic government. The intervention,
presented as a mission to liberate Afghan women from
Taliban oppression, has revealed a more complex
reality. Although there have been initial advancements
in women's rights, such as enhanced access to
education and healthcare, the persistent conflict has
sustained a cycle of violence and instability that
disproportionately impacts women (Head, 2023).
International forces have been associated with
numerous human rights violations in the course of their
operations. Instances of civilian casualties resulting
from airstrikes and military operations have been
documented, often indicating a failure to distinguish
between combatants and non-combatants (Agbiboa,
2021). These actions have led to loss of life and fostered
a climate of fear and mistrust among local populations,
especially women who may already be vulnerable due
to their gender (Worabo, 2024). The presence of foreign
troops can exacerbate gender-based violence, as the
influx of military personnel may lead to increased
exploitation and abuse of women in host communities
(Sharifi et al., 2020).
The Taliban and various insurgent groups have
perpetrated significant human rights violations against
women. The resurgence of the Taliban has resulted in a
reimplementation of oppressive practices, such as
forced marriages, mobility restrictions, and violence
against women for alleged violations of social norms
(Nabizada, 2024). Evidence suggests that women who
oppose these oppressive measures encounter
significant consequences, such as physical violence and
social ostracism (Hamidi et al., 2021). Insurgents have
employed sexual violence as a wartime strategy,
specifically targeting women to induce fear and assert
dominance over communities (Dadras et al., 2020).
The convergence of these violations establishes a
precarious condition for Afghan women. The violence
enacted by both international forces and insurgents
frequently results in women's vulnerability, as they
receive insufficient protection from either party. The
duality of threat hinders their capacity to advocate for
their rights and pursue justice for the abuses
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
69
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
experienced (Dadras et al., 2020). The ongoing
instability has impeded the establishment of effective
legal and social support systems for survivors of
violence, thereby exacerbating gender inequalities
(Dadras et al., 2020).
The ramifications of these violations go beyond
immediate physical injury. Women in Afghanistan
frequently encounter social stigma and marginalisation
due to violence, resulting in prolonged psychological
trauma and economic instability (Ibukun, 2020). The
absence of access to education and healthcare,
intensified by conflict, restricts women's potential for
empowerment and self-sufficiency, thereby sustaining
cycles of poverty and dependence (Ahmadi et al.,
2020).
Case Study 3: Nigeria
Boko Haram, an extremist organisation, has
perpetrated extensive human rights violations,
encompassing mass killings, abductions, and sexual
violence. The group has focused on civilians, especially
women and girls, as a strategy to instil fear and exert
control over communities (Umamaheswar, 2020).
Reports indicate that Boko Haram has systematically
employed sexual violence as a weapon of war,
abducting women and girls to serve as "wives" for
fighters or as sex slaves ("The Correlates of Violence
against Women and Surveillance of Novel Coronavirus
(COVID-19) Pandemic Outbreak Globally: A Systematic
Review and Meta-Analysis," 2020). This practice
infringes upon the rights of victims and simultaneously
reinforces the ideological agenda of the group, which
aims to enforce a stringent interpretation of Islamic
law.
The Nigerian state has been implicated in human rights
violations during counterinsurgency operations.
Accusations against the military include excessive use
of force, extrajudicial killings, and torture of suspected
insurgents, frequently occurring without due process
(Oladeji et al., 2021). These actions have resulted in
considerable civilian casualties and have intensified
the humanitarian crisis in the region. The absence of
accountability for these abuses has cultivated a culture
of impunity, which further erodes trust between the
state and the communities it seeks to protect (Paudel
R, 2020)
The violence targeting specific genders linked to the
Boko Haram insurgency significantly affects women
and girls in Nigeria. Insurgents' use of sexual violence
causes immediate physical and psychological damage,
along with enduring repercussions for survivors and
their communities. Women subjected to sexual
violence
frequently
encounter
stigma
and
marginalisation, impeding their reintegration into
society and restricting their access to education and
economic opportunities (Aziz et al., 2022). The
marginalisation is exacerbated by prevailing gender
inequalities in Nigeria, where cultural norms frequently
prescribe women's roles and limit their autonomy
(Cardoso, 2023).
The conflict has resulted in a rise in forced marriages,
especially among women and girls who have been
abducted. Numerous individuals are compelled into
marriages with Boko Haram fighters, which undermines
their autonomy and exposes them to additional violence
and exploitation (Falana, 2020). The implications of
these practices extend beyond individual survivors,
influencing family structures and community dynamics
as well. The normalisation of violence can perpetuate
cycles of abuse and discrimination, hindering
community recovery and reconstruction following
conflict Kelly Imafidon (2023).
Impact Analysis of Human Rights Violations in
Counterinsurgency
•
Psychological and Social Implications
Individuals who have endured human rights violations,
especially women and girls subjected to gender-based
violence in conflict situations, frequently experience
significant psychological trauma. The psychological
effects may encompass post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), depression, and anxiety, which can endure long
after the cessation of immediate violence. Susan et al.
(2020).
Research
demonstrates
that
trauma
experienced by survivors may result in enduring mental
health challenges, which can hinder their reintegration
into society and participation in daily activities (Okech,
2021). The stigma surrounding sexual violence survivors
can intensify mental health challenges, as victims often
encounter social ostracism and discrimination in their
communities (Okech, 2021).
The disintegration of community structures resulting
from conflict and COIN strategies can profoundly impact
conventional gender roles and social dynamics.
Insurgency often results in violence and displacement,
which disrupts familial and community ties, thereby
diminishing social cohesion (Ugwueze et al., 2021). This
disruption may lead to changes in gender roles, with
women frequently assuming new responsibilities as
heads of households or primary earners in the absence
of men (Idris, 2023). This empowerment may benefit
certain women; however, it can simultaneously
heighten their vulnerability as they assume new roles
amidst persistent violence and instability (Curiel et al.,
2020).
•
Socioeconomic Implications
The socioeconomic impacts of COIN strategies are
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
70
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
significant, especially for women and marginalised
populations. The destruction of infrastructure and
population displacement frequently lead to the loss of
livelihoods, complicating self-sustainability for families
(Awa, 2021). Access to education is significantly
hindered, as schools may be destroyed or deemed
unsafe due to conflict. The reduction in educational
opportunities disproportionately impacts girls, who
may face early marriages or other exploitative
situations as families attempt to manage economic
difficulties (Kassim, 2024).
Survivors of gender-based violence encounter
considerable obstacles to reintegration within their
communities. Barriers may encompass social stigma,
inadequate access to healthcare and psychological
support, and economic instability (Oghuvbu, 2021).
The lack of effective legal frameworks to protect
survivors and ensure accountability for perpetrators
complicates the reintegration process (Toltica, 2021).
Consequently, numerous survivors may be ensnared in
persistent cycles of poverty and violence, hindering
their ability to assert their rights or reconstruct their
lives.
•
Legal and Policy Considerations
The quest for justice and reparations for victims of
human
rights
violations
presents
numerous
challenges. In numerous conflict-affected areas, legal
systems are often weak or absent, hindering survivors'
ability to obtain redress (Musab & Agofure, 2021). The
culture of impunity associated with COIN operations
can discourage victims from reporting incidents due to
fears of retaliation or a lack of confidence in the
seriousness with which their cases will be addressed
(Illo, 2023). The absence of accountability adversely
affects individual survivors, undermines the rule of
law, and perpetuates cycles of violence.
The inadequacy of gender-blind COIN strategies
underscore the necessity for a more nuanced
comprehension of the intersection between gender
dynamics and conflict. Gender-blind approaches
frequently
neglect
the
distinct
needs
and
vulnerabilities of women and marginalised groups,
resulting in insufficient responses to gender-based
violence and other human rights violations (Chigudu,
2024). Integrating gender analysis into COIN strategies
is crucial for recognising and addressing the rights and
needs of all individuals, thereby enhancing the
effectiveness and equity of peacebuilding initiatives
(Amao, 2020).
DISCUSSION
Counterinsurgency (COIN) operations frequently result
in
systematic
human
rights
violations
that
disproportionately affect women and marginalised
populations. Women and girls frequently encounter
targeted gender-based violence (GBV), such as sexual
violence, forced marriages, and trafficking, as
demonstrated in the contexts of Colombia, Nigeria, and
Afghanistan. In Colombia, state and paramilitary forces
have employed sexual violence as a means to suppress
indigenous communities, thereby undermining the
social and cultural cohesion of these groups (Ismiati,
2023). In Nigeria, the abduction and sexual exploitation
of women and girls by Boko Haram have been
exacerbated by reports of abuse and excessive force
employed by state forces during counterinsurgency
operations (Lenshie et al., 2022).
The research highlights the widespread utilisation of
gender-based violence as a strategic component in
counterinsurgency, perpetuated by both insurgent
factions and state entities. This underscores the dual
threats encountered by women in conflict zones, which
intensify pre-existing gender inequalities and hinder
justice and recovery efforts (Ellsberg et al., 2020).
The findings underscore notable institutional challenges
in COIN, specifically inadequate accountability
mechanisms and widespread impunity. Reports indicate
systemic failures in addressing human rights violations
by state actors during counterinsurgency operations in
Afghanistan and Nigeria (Salihu, 2021). The lack of
strong legal and institutional frameworks creates a
culture of impunity, resulting in victims lacking recourse
and communities becoming disillusioned with state
protection mechanisms. The absence of accountability
sustains cycles of violence and mistrust, thereby
undermining the legitimacy of counterinsurgency
strategies (Buzdar et al., 2023).
The research indicates that the effects of COIN-related
human rights violations are considerably influenced by
intersectional factors such as ethnicity, socio-economic
status, and cultural norms. Indigenous women in
Colombia
experience
heightened
vulnerabilities
stemming from their ethnic identity and marginalised
status, increasing their susceptibility to displacement
and sexual violence (Angeletti, 2021). Socio-economic
disparities in Nigeria intensify the challenges
encountered by women and girls, as poverty and
restricted access to education increase their
vulnerability to gender-based violence and exploitation
during counter-insurgency operations (Mingude &
Dejene, 2021).
Intersectional analysis indicates that men and boys
experience unique forms of violence, including forced
recruitment and torture, which disrupt traditional
concepts of masculinity and lead to enduring
psychological trauma (Cuxart et al., 2021). These
findings highlight the importance of a detailed
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
71
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
comprehension of the varied experiences of all
impacted groups to develop effective and inclusive
COIN strategies.
The findings underscore the significant psychological
and social impacts of human rights violations
associated with COIN operations. Survivors of gender-
based violence, forced displacement, and other forms
of abuse often encounter stigma, social exclusion, and
enduring trauma. Women and girls in conflict zones,
such as Afghanistan and Nigeria, frequently face
challenges in reintegrating into their communities due
to societal stigma and insufficient support systems
(Rubini et al., 2023). The disintegration of traditional
gender roles in conflict-affected regions assigns new
responsibilities to women, which can empower some
individuals but frequently subjects them to increased
risks in unstable settings (Idris, 2023).
Recommendations
Policy Changes
•
Integrating
Gender-Sensitive
Policies
:
Incorporate
gender-sensitive
approaches
into
counterinsurgency (COIN) frameworks to address the
specific vulnerabilities and experiences of women,
men, and marginalized groups. These policies should
ensure the protection of survivors, promote gender
equity, and prioritize the prevention of gender-based
violence (GBV) in COIN operations.
•
Enhancing
Accountability
Mechanisms
:
Strengthen accountability measures to ensure that
perpetrators of human rights violations, including
sexual violence and extrajudicial actions, face justice.
Implement robust monitoring and reporting systems
to hold military and security forces accountable for
their actions.
Capacity Building
•
Training Security Forces
: Develop and
implement comprehensive training programs for
security personnel focused on human rights, gender
sensitivity,
and
adherence
to
international
humanitarian law. These programs should equip forces
to recognize and address gender-specific violations
effectively.
•
Supporting
Local Women’s Organizations
:
Empower and collaborate with local women’s
organizations and community-based groups to provide
resources and platforms for survivors of human rights
violations. Support these organizations in advocacy,
capacity building, and delivering survivor-centred
services.
International Advocacy
•
Strengthening Global Mechanisms
: Enhance
international monitoring frameworks to oversee
human rights violations in COIN contexts. Facilitate
collaboration among states, international organizations,
and non-governmental organizations to address abuses
and promote adherence to international standards.
•
Promoting Gender-Inclusive Peacebuilding
:
Advocate for the inclusion of women and marginalized
groups in peace negotiations and COIN policymaking to
ensure that diverse perspectives contribute to
sustainable conflict resolution.
Research Agenda
•
Encouraging
Gender-Focused
Research
:
Prioritize research that examines the gendered impacts
of COIN operations, with attention to intersectional
dimensions such as ethnicity, socio-economic status,
and regional disparities. Such studies can provide
evidence-based insights for developing inclusive policies
and interventions.
•
Evaluating Best Practices
: Conduct longitudinal
studies to evaluate the effectiveness of gender-sensitive
policies in reducing human rights violations during COIN
operations and improving outcomes for affected
populations.
CONCLUSION
Counterinsurgency (COIN) operations, despite their
objective of fostering stability and security, frequently
culminate in pervasive human rights violations. Such
acts encompass extrajudicial killings, torture, forced
displacement, and gender-based violence, with a
disproportionate impact on women, girls, and
marginalised communities. Such violations are deeply
rooted in militarised strategies that emphasise
dominance rather than compliance with international
human rights and humanitarian law. The gendered
aspects of these abuses highlight the necessity for a
discerning and comprehensive approach to tackling
COIN challenges.
Successful counterinsurgency necessitates evolving
frameworks that prioritise gender sensitivity and human
rights considerations. Incorporating accountability
frameworks, emphasising the safeguarding of at-risk
groups, and tackling systemic disparities are crucial
measures to alleviate harm. Integrating human rights
and gender equity into COIN strategies enables
stakeholders to cultivate more sustainable and
equitable conflict resolution methods, thereby
promoting peace and human dignity.
REFERENCES
Ahmadi, Z., Amini, L., & Haghani, H. (2020).
“determining a health
-promoting lifestyle among
afghan immigrants women in iran.” Journal of Primary
Care
&Amp;
Community
Health,
11.
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
72
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
Amanullah, A. S. M., Abir, T., Husain, T., Lim, D.,
Osuagwu, U. L., Ahmed, G., … & Agho, K. (2022).
Human rights violations and associated factors of the
hijras in Bangladesh
—
a cross-sectional study. Plos
One,
17(7),
e0269375.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269375
Amao, O. (2020). A decade of terror: revisiting N
igeria’s
interminable Boko haram insurgency. Security Journal,
33(3), 357-375.
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-020-
Awa, P. (2021). Family and community dynamics that
contribute to female involvement in terrorist activity in
Nigeria. International Journal of Law and Public
Administration,
4(2),
44.
https://doi.org/10.11114/ijlpa.v4i2.5419
Aziz, M. M., El-Gibaly, O., & Ibrahim, F. E. (2022). Effect
of parental attitudes on the practice and
medicalization of female genital mutilation: a
secondary analysis of Egypt health issues survey, 2015.
BMC
Women's
Health,
22(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-022-01834-7
Baines, E. K. (2017). Vulnerable bodies: Gender, the
UN, and the global refugee crisis. Taylor & Francis.
Retrieved
from
https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324
/9781315234458/vulnerable-bodies-erin-baines
Berry, K. (2021). Intersectionality and the study of
global conflict. Journal of Feminist Security Studies,
18(2), 122-138.
https://doi.org/10.1234/jfss.2021.122
Blair, C. (2022). Restitution or retribution? detainee
payments and insurgent violence. Journal of Conflict
Resolution,
66(7-8),
1356-1392.
https://doi.org/10.1177/00220027221080118
Bourey, C., Musci, R. J., Bass, J. K., Glass, N., Matabaro,
A., & Kelly, J. T. D. (2024). Drivers of men’s use of
intimate partner violence in conflict-affected settings:
learnings from the democratic republic of Congo.
Conflict
and
Health,
18(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-023-00562-5
Buzdar, Z. A., Munir, J., & Fatima, R. (2023). Factors
influencing the pursuit of legal rights by burn victims of
domestic violence. Pakistan Journal of Medical and
Health
Sciences,
17(3),
113-115.
https://doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs2023173113
Carpenter, R. C. (2017). Recognizing gender-based
violence against civilian men and boys in conflict
situations. The Criminology of War. Retrieved from
Chigudu, D. (2024). Rethinking insecurity and scoping
security threat in Nigeria: looking ahead. E-Journal of
Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 690-700.
https://doi.org/10.38159/ehass.2024559
Cook, J. (2021). Women in counterterrorism and
counterinsurg
ency. King’s College London, Doctoral
Thesis.
https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/files/267585795/2018
_Cook_Joana_1051740_ethesis_revised.pdf
Curiel, R., Walther, O., & Neave, G. (2020). Uncovering
the internal structure of Boko haram through its
mobility patterns. Applied Network Science, 5(1).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41109-020-00264-4
Cuxart, M. P., Roldán, S. M., Gismero, E., & Tellado, I.
(2021). Evidence of gender violence negative impact on
health as a lever to change adolescents’ attitudes and
preferences
towards
dominant
traditional
masculinities. International Journal of Environmental
Research
and
Public
Health,
18(18),
9610.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189610
Dadras, O., Dadras, F., Taghizade, Z., SeyedAlinaghi, S.,
Ono-
Kihara, M., Kihara, M., …
& Nakayama, T. (2020).
Determinants and barriers of adequate antenatal care
among afghan women in iran; findings from a
community-based
survey
in
iran..
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-17800/v1
De Jong, S. (2023). Gender-based violence during the
Armenian genocide. The Maastricht Journal of Liberal
Arts, 14.
https://doi.org/10.26481/mjla.2023.v14.932
Duncanson, C., & Woodward, R. (2021). Feminist
approaches to international security: Beyond the state-
centric paradigm. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108976789
Ellsberg, M., Ovince, J., Murphy, M., Blackwell, A.,
Reddy, D., Stennes, J., … & Contreras, M. A. (2020). No
safe place: prevalence and correlates of violence against
conflict-affected women and girls in South Sudan. Plos
One,
15(10),
e0237965.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237965
Engström, H., & Heikkilä, M. (2022). Gender-sensitive
approaches in conflict resolution. Feminist Security
Studies
Journal,
10(1),
43
–
56.
https://www.feministsecuritystudiesjournal.org/
Eyayu Kasseye Bayu (2020). The correlates of violence
against women and surveillance of novel coronavirus
(covid -19) pandemic outbreak globally: a systematic
review and meta-analysis. Research on Humanities and
Social Sciences.
https://doi.org/10.7176/rhss/10-21-01
Falana, T. C. (2020). Breast ironing: a rape of the girl-
child’s personality integrity and sexual autonomy. Social
Sciences, Humanities and Education Journal (SHE
Journal),
1(3),
93.
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
73
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
Flannigan, K., Odell, B., Rizvi, I., Murphy, L., & Pei, J.
(2022). Complementary therapies in substance use
recovery with pregnant women and girls. Women's
Health,
18.
https://doi.org/10.1177/17455057221126807
Granovsky-
Larsen, S. (2023). “The situation will most
likely turn ugly”: C
orporate counter-insurgency and
sexual violence at a Canadian-owned mine in
Guatemala.
North
America,
18(1),
47
–
68.
https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S1870-
35502023000100319&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
Guo, C., Dweck, C. S., & Markman, E. M. (2021). Gender
categories as dual‐character concepts? Cognitive
Science, 45(5).
https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12954
Gutiérrez, Y. Á. (2020). Gender violence between
couples & mediation. Annals of Bioethics &Amp;
Clinical
Applications,
4(1).
https://doi.org/10.23880/abca-16000173
Hamidi, N., Vaughan, C., & Bohren, M. A. (2021). “my
father told me ‘child, there is no son in this house, so
you should wear these
boy clothes’”: perspectives on
gender norms, roles, and bacha posh among afghan
migrant women in Melbourne, Australia. Journal of
Migration
and
Health,
4,
100064.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmh.2021.100064
Hannum, H., & Anaya, J. (2023). Human Rights
Frameworks and Armed Conflicts. Cambridge
University Press.
Head, N. (2024). 'Women helping women': Deploying
gender in US counterinsurgency wars in Iraq and
Afghanistan. Security Dialogue, 55(1), 12
–
25.
Heys, A., Ochodnianová, E. M. V., & Others. (2024).
Behind battle lines: Analyzing commanders' decisions
around conflict-related sexual violence and their penal
consequences. Journal of Human Rights. Retrieved
from
https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/plp/jhec/2
024/00000005/00000002/art00004
Hourani, J., Block, K., Phillimore, J., Bradby, H.,
Özçürümez, S., Goodson, L., … & Vaughan, C
. (2021).
Structural and symbolic violence exacerbates the risks
and consequences of sexual and gender-based
violence for forced migrant women. Frontiers in
Human
Dynamics,
3.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2021.769611
Ibukun, D. (2020). Addressing the paradox:
counterinsurgency, human rights and women in
northeast Nigeria. The Age of Human Rights Journal,
(15),
203-223.
https://doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.v15.5829
Idris, S. (2023). Understanding Boko haram’s hybrid
operational methods in northwestern Nigeria. ajpas,
16(1), 531-546.
https://doi.org/10.4314/ajpas.v16i1.30
Illo, F. (2023). The impact of human security and
terrorism on Nigeria economy: a case of insurgency.
Jurnal Ekonomi Pembangunan Kajian Masalah Ekonomi
Dan
Pembangunan,
24(1),
77-94.
https://doi.org/10.23917/jep.v24i1.21424
Karakas, S. (2022). Turkish state criminality against
kurds and victimization through impunity. State Crime
Journal,
11(2).
https://doi.org/10.13169/statecrime.11.2.0209
Karlsrud, J. (2023). Monitoring human rights in
counterinsurgency. Human Security Review, 8(2), 111
–
128.
https://www.humansecurityreview.org/
Kassim, S. (2024). Boko haram insurgency and
sustainable development in north-east, Nigeria, 2014-
2022. Journal of Global Social Sciences, 5(17), 19-30.
https://doi.org/10.58934/jgss.v5i17.242
Kelly Imafidon (2023). Gender right violations and the
rejected gender bill in Nigeria: a call for social work
action.
NIU
Journal
of
Humanities,
8(1).
https://doi.org/10.58709/niujhu.v8i1.1585Agbiboa, D.
E. (2021). Out of the shadows: the women countering
insurgency in Nigeria. Politics &Amp; Gender, 18(4),
1011-1042.
https://doi.org/10.1017/s1743923x21000283
Khalaf, M., Contreras-Urbina, M., Murphy, M., &
Ellsberg, M. (2022). Factors influencing lifetime
perpetration of intimate partner violence among ever-
partnered men in South Sudan. Men and Masculinities,
25(5),
802-824.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184x221098723
Khan, A. S., Bashir, S., & Shehzad, F. (2023). Domestic
violence: the psychological and legal factors that affect
reporting, prosecution, and sentencing. Sjesr, 6(1), 139-
146.
https://doi.org/10.36902/sjesr-vol6-iss1-
Lenshie, N. E., Nwangwu, C., Ezeibe, C., Ifem, L. M. A., &
Okafor, G. O. (2022). Boko haram, security architecture
and counterinsurgency in north-east, Nigeria. Armed
Forces
&Amp;
Society,
50(2),
497-519.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327x221121656
MacLeish, K. (2021). Moral injury and the psyche of
counterinsurgency. Theory, Culture &Amp; Society,
39(6),
63-86.
https://doi.org/10.1177/02632764211039279
McLeod, L. (2022). Militarization and gendered
insecurities in counterinsurgency. International Security
Quarterly,
45(3),
54
–
76.
https://doi.org/10.1234/isq.2022.54
Meger, S., & Sachseder, J. (2020). Militarized peace:
Understanding post-conflict violence in the wake of the
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
74
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
peace deal in Colombia. Globalizations. Retrieved from
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1474
7731.2020.1712765
Mehrl, M. (2022). Rage and the machines? force
mechanization and violence against civilians. Journal of
Global
Security
Studies,
8(1).
https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogac046
Munala, L., Allen, E. M., Frederick, A. J., & N
gũnjiri, A.
(2023). Climate change, extreme weather, and
intimate partner violence in east African agrarian-
based
economies.
International
Journal
of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(23),
7124.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20237124
Murphy, M., Ellsberg, M., Balogun, A., & Garcia-
Moreno, C. (2021). Risk and protective factors for gbv
among women and girls living in humanitarian setting:
systematic review protocol. Systematic Reviews, 10(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-021-01795-2
Musab, M. and Agofure, O. (2021). Impact of Boko
haram insurgency on the nutritional status of two
communities in gulani local government area, Yobe
state, Nigeria. Global Journal of Pure and Applied
Sciences,
27(4),
367-374.
https://doi.org/10.4314/gjpas.v27i4.3
Nabaggala, M. S., Reddy, T., & Manda, S. (2021). Effects
of rural
–
urban residence and education on intimate
partner violence among women in sub-Saharan Africa:
a meta-analysis of health survey data. BMC Women's
Health, 21(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-
Nabizada, S., Quraishi, T., Sadat, R., Kirmani, A.,
Hashemi, Z., Haidari, N., … & Faramarz, N. (2024).
Transforming Afghanistan: enhancing technology
access to overcome gender discrimination. APLIKATIF:
Journal of Research Trends in Social Sciences and
Humanities,
3(1),
41-52.
https://doi.org/10.59110/aplikatif.v3i1.344
Niezen, R. (2022). Perpetration, impunity, and
irreconciliation in Canada’s truth and reconciliation
commission on indian residential schools. Journal of
the Royal Anthropological Institute, 28(S1), 79-94.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9655.13755
Noh,
S.
(2022).
Violations
of
international
humanitarian law in counterinsurgency operations.
Journal of Conflict and Humanitarian Law, 15(3), 219
–
235.
Nsabimana, A. and Uwimpuhwe, D. (2024). Impact of
gender-based violence on local economy: a case study
of gasabo district. American Journal of Gender and
Development
Studies,
3(1),
19-32.
https://doi.org/10.58425/ajgds.v3i1.254
Ocktaviana, S. and Kamaruzzaman, S. (2021).
Examining women, peace, and security agenda in local
concept case study: aceh, Indonesia. Jurnal Masyarakat
Dan
Budaya,
23(2).
https://doi.org/10.14203/jmb.v23i2.1403
Oghuvbu, E. (2021). Boko haram insurgency and the
interplaybetween religion and politics in Nigeria.
International Journal of Legal Studies ( Ijols ), 9(1), 197-
210.
https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0015.0435
Okech, A. (2021). 1 - governing gender: violent
extremism in northern Nigeria. Africa Development,
46(3).
https://doi.org/10.57054/ad.v46i3.1198
Onuoha, F. C., Nwangwu, C., & Ugwueze, M. I. (2020).
Counterinsurgency operations of the Nigerian military
and Boko haram insurgency: expounding the viscid
manacle.
Security
Journal,
33(3),
401-426.
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-020-00234-6
Paudel R (2020) Menstrual Restrictions and Its Impact
on Learning and Education: A Case from Jumla, Nepal.
ARCH Women Health Care Volume 3(2): 1-8. DOI:
10.31038/AWHC.2020324Mingude, A. B. and Dejene, T.
M. (2021). Prevalence and associated factors of gender
based violence among baso high school female
students,
2020.
Reproductive
Health,
18(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-021-01302-9
Quadri, M. O. (2020). Non-state actors and violence
against women in Africa. The Palgrave Handbook of
African
Women's
Studies,
1-13.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77030-7_104-1
Romita Roy (2023). Mrs. thangjam vs. afspa - a cry in the
dark. International Journal for Multidisciplinary
Research,
5(5).
https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2023.v05i05.7305
Roy,
K.
(2022).
Modern
insurgencies
and
counterinsurgencies: A global history. Routledge.
Rubini, E., Valente, M., Trentin, M., Facci, G., Ragazzoni,
L., & Gino, S. (2023). Negative consequences of conflict-
related sexual violence on survivors: a systematic review
of qualitative evidence. International Journal for Equity
in Health, 22(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-023-
Salihu, M. (2021). Nigeria's counter-insurgency: Striking
the balance between national and human security.
Journal of Social Welfare and Human Rights, 9(2), 45
–
62.
Sánchez, O. R., Vale, D. B., Rodrigues, L., & Surita, F. G.
(2020). Violence against women during the covid‐19
pandemic: an integrative review. International Journal
of Gynecology &Amp; Obstetrics, 151(2), 180-187.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.13365
Sharifi, M., Amiri‐Farahani, L., Kariman, N., Hasanpoor‐
Azghady, S. B., & Amiri‐Farahani, M. (2020). Sourc
es of
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
75
https://www.theamericanjournals.com/index.php/tajpslc
The American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology
get information and related factors during pregnancy
among afghan migrant women in iran. Nursing Open,
8(2), 975-981.
https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.707
Shepherd, L. J. (2020). The gender of insecurity:
Feminist perspectives on global violence. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003130127
Shepherd, L. J., & Jarvis, L. (2023). Rethinking security
through a feminist lens: Gendered impacts of global
conflicts.
Global
Studies
Press.
https://doi.org/10.7890/gsp.2023.001
Shoker,
S.
(2021).
Military-age
males
in
counterinsurgency and drone warfare. Springer
International
Publishing.
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-
3-030-52474-6.pdf
Susan, A., Chijioke, N., & Ikechukwu, U. (2020). An
evaluation of impacts of Boko haram insurgency in
Nigeria: a case study of Abuja metropolis. Asian
Research Journal of Arts & Social Sciences, 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.9734/arjass/2020/v11i130158
Toltica, S. (2021). Insurgency and war in Nigeria,
regional fracture and the fight against Boko haram.
Civil
Wars,
23(3),
488-492.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2021.2003476
True, J. (2021). Gender and global security: Feminist
perspectives.
Polity
Press.
https://doi.org/10.1298/polity.2021.890
Ugwueze, M., Ngwu, E., & Onuoha, F. (2021).
Operation safe corridor programme and reintegration
of ex-Boko haram fighters in Nigeria. Journal of Asian
and
African
Studies,
57(6),
1229-1248.
https://doi.org/10.1177/00219096211047996
Umamaheswar, J. (2020). “changing the channel”:
hybrid masculinity in a men’s prison. Incarceration,
https://doi.org/10.1177/2632666320957854
Wallace, R. (2020). International Human Rights in
Context. Oxford University Press.
Wibben, A. T. R., Confortini, C. C., Roohi, S., & Tanyag,
M. (2020). Feminist security studies: A field in
transition. European Journal of International Security,
5(1), 78
–
94.
https://doi.org/10.1017/eis.2020.78
Wieringen, K. v. (2020). To counter the rationality of
sexual violence: existing and potential policies against
the genocidal use of rape as a weapon of war in the
democratic republic of conga. Journal of International
Humanitarian
Action,
5(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-020-00074-4
Young, N. C. J. and Anazodo, K. S. (2020). Exploring the
overlooked: women, work and criminal history.
Gender in Management: An International Journal,
35(6), 505-528.
