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PUBLISHED DATE: - 26-09-2024
DOI: -
https://doi.org/10.37547/tajssei/Volume06Issue09-12
PAGE NO.: - 104-114
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM IN EASTERN
AND SOUTH-EAST ASIAN COUNTRIES
Elyorbek Otajonov
Institute for Research of the Youth Problems and Training Prospective
Personnel foundation doctoral student, Uzbekistan
INTRODUCTION
East Asia is a region comprising a diverse range of
countries with varying political systems and
historical backgrounds. This diversity leads to
different approaches to administrative reform,
which aim to improve government efficiency,
enhance the quality of public services, and
promote
transparency
in
administrative
processes.
The impact of the New Public Management (NPM)
approach on managerial practices within
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) member countries has been
significant. This transformation has been
described in various ways, such as managerialism ,
market-based
public
administration
,
entrepreneurial government and new public
management, but the underlying essence remains
consistent. Essentially, NPM is a framework that
incorporates a range of reforms based on the belief
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Open Access
Abstract
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that applying private sector management
techniques and market-oriented mechanisms can
enhance the effectiveness of public sector
organisations.
ABOUT SCIENTISTS WHO STUDIED THIS TOPIC
This article examines the key methodological
frameworks used by experts to evaluate and
implement administrative reform in East Asian
countries. It also explores the work of scholars who
have studied this topic, including Francis
Fukuyama and Edward M. Lee. Fukuyama has
focused on issues related to public administration
and institutional change, while Lee has examined
the influence of culture on reform in Asia.
MAIN PART
The main part of the paper will discuss the
methodologies used by researchers to analyze and
implement administrative changes in East Asia, as
well as the contributions of Fukuyama and Lee to
our understanding of governance and reform in
the region.
The initial focus of NPM was on improving the
efficiency
and
effectiveness
of
public
organisations.This represents a significant shift in
cultural approach, as the traditional model,
characterized by an emphasis on processes and
regulations, is being replaced by a new paradigm
that seeks to integrate modern management
techniques with economic principles while
upholding essential public values .
Pollitt identifies eight key components of NPM
(New Public Management):
1. Reduction in costs;
2. Establishment of budget caps and increased
visibility in resource allocation;
3. Disintegration of traditional bureaucratic
frameworks into individual agencies;
4. Decentralization of management within
governmental institutions;
5. Separation of services from procurement;
6. Implementation of market-based and quasi-
market instruments;
7. Focusing on performance management, metrics,
and goal-setting;
8. Implementation of fixed-term contracts,
performance-related remuneration, and local
decision-making with regard to salaries and
working conditions.
In light of a growing emphasis on quality service
delivery,
standardization,
and
customer
responsiveness, Hughes argues that New Public
Management (NPM) has successfully replaced the
traditional model of public administration. He
posits that the public sector of the future will be
characterized by managerialism in both theory and
practice. Hood emphasizes the importance of
replacing bureaucratic practices in the public
sector with those employed in the private sector in
order to ensure the effectiveness of these reforms.
The widespread adoption of public management
reforms based on the principles of the New Public
Management model has been accompanied by
some controversy among OECD countries. This
approach places an unbalanced emphasis on
economic and financial aspects, often to the
detriment of the quality of public services and
citizen engagement. The reform process has led
public managers to operate in a context with fewer
resources and more challenging employment
conditions. In some cases, this has resulted in the
loss of tenure for departmental secretaries,
extended working hours, decreased control over
personal lives, and decreased morale. Additionally,
public managers have faced increased criticism, as
there is growing doubt about their ability to
effectively and efficiently deliver services.
Furthermore, Considine and Painter argue that an
overreliance on private sector management
techniques in the public sector may potentially
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undermine existing social democratic principles
and practices. This perspective adds another
important dimension to the discussion on the
impact of the reform process on public
management. International development agencies
have integrated NPM reforms as a precondition for
much-needed external support. These agencies
contend that this approach enhances flexibility and
dynamism in the public sector in order to
capitalize on globalization's advantages and attract
foreign direct investment. It is widely
acknowledged that effective public sector
governance is essential for creating a favorable
environment for attracting foreign investment.
Hughes and Teicher argue that the adoption of
NPM principles in developing countries can lead to
additional complexities. Some scholars warn
against implementing NPM practices in such
contexts, asserting that in the absence of rule-
based governance and a strong legal framework,
these initiatives may cause more harm than
good.Despite this debate, national public
management reforms have become an integral
part of public sector reform in developing
countries since the 1990s. This is evident in the
experiences of various countries, such as
Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh,
among others.
These countries have implemented various NPM
initiatives based on their own unique
circumstances. In recent years, there has been
significant discussion about the multifaceted
implications of NPM practices and the
development of a range of theoretical frameworks
for
comparative
analysis
across
OECD
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development) nations. However, limited attention
has been given to developing countries,
particularly in Asia. This paper contributes to the
div of knowledge by conducting a comparative
analysis of New Public Management (NPM) reform
efforts in four countries: Singapore, Malaysia, Sri
Lanka, and Bangladesh. The study focuses on
examining the specific nature of NPM initiatives
implemented in each of these countries and the
influence of various contextual factors on the
success of these reforms.
The implementation of New Public Management
reforms in developing countries has received
significant attention in recent years. Initially,
governments and international development
agencies took their time to recognize this trend.
However, the call for market liberalization
necessitated the establishment of an efficient
public sector operating under a new set of
regulations that facilitate private sector
engagement
and
the
corporatization
of
enterprises, as well as effective contract
management. On the one hand, the fundamental
principles of NPM support a government role
limited to providing essential public services,
maintaining law and order, and protecting the
environment. However, more recently, discussions
in developed countries have shifted to a more
sophisticated perspective, focusing on how the
public sector can contribute to improving "public
value".
In
contrast,
developing
countries
have
implemented reforms based on NPM principles
with the goal of enhancing efficiency, promoting
private sector involvement in the economy, and
attracting foreign direct investment (FDI), instead
of simply adopting the idea of "small government."
Samaratunge and Hughes argue that the proposed
changes within this new model are crucial and
require
careful
political
consideration.
Nevertheless, the NPM framework undeniably
provides valuable insights and guidance for
developing countries. We now turn our attention
to a comprehensive analysis of NPM reforms
implemented in four countries in South and
Southeast Asia.
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These countries
–
Singapore, Malaysia
–
represent
compelling case studies for comparative analysis,
as they offer diverse experiences with NPM. All
four countries have a shared historical background
as former British colonies and have inherited a
similar administrative model that was heavily
influenced by British colonialism. They fall within
the range of countries with middle-to-high per
capita income levels and have democratic
governance structures in place. Singapore and
Malaysia in particular have achieved the status of
newly
industrialized
countries
(NICs)
characterized by sustained economic growth.
These countries maintain a highly competent civil
service that is in line with international standards,
and benefit from strong political leadership.
However, neither of these two countries can be
considered to fully embrace a liberal democratic
system.
Some countries operate under a one-party system,
whereas others embrace pluralism. Institutional
capacity, such as a well-functioning and flexible
civil service, a strong legal framework, and
efficient regulatory bodies, are essential for
successful public sector reform. However, this
capacity varies significantly from country to
country. International Development Agencies
(IDAs) have played a significant role in supporting
institutional and structural reforms in developing
countries. The aim has been to provide essential
guidance and financial and technical assistance to
facilitate much-needed changes. It is worth noting
that this support is conditional upon certain
criteria being met.
Civil society plays a crucial role in two ways:
1. As a check on government bureaucracy,
ensuring accountability.
2. By promoting a culture of inclusive governance.
The specific role of civil society may vary
depending on the political context.
Singapore: A Model for Modern Urban Governance
Singapore, a city-state with a population of
approximately 4.2 million people as of 2004, is a
case study in successful urban governance. Its
unique blend of historical, political, economic, and
social factors has led to the development of an
exceptional governance system that has been
recognized as one of the most effective in the
world.
The government of Singapore, recognizing the
need to transform the city from a mere trading hub
into a prosperous state, implemented an open-
door economic policy that encouraged the growth
of the private sector and the generation of wealth.
This strategy has propelled Singapore on a path of
continuous
modernization
and
economic
growth.Education has been identified as a
cornerstone of Singapore's cultural and social
foundations,
reflecting
its
adherence
to
fundamental Confucian values. Despite relatively
low levels of welfare spending, social policies have
often been implemented as complementary
measures in order to achieve economic goals.
In 1965, Singapore separated from the Malaysian
Federation. The transition from being a British
colony to becoming an internally self-governing
state was accompanied by a prolonged struggle
between left-wing groups and the ruling People's
Action Party (PAP). The PAP has retained its
dominance in political and administrative circles
within the country, playing a significant role in
promoting economic development, as noted by
George.Under the leadership of the PAP, a culture
has been fostered that emphasizes respect for
authority and prioritizes the nation over individual
interests. The political system in Singapore
embodies key principles of parliamentary
democracy, such as regular elections. However,
there is some debate about the extent to which this
can be considered genuine democracy due to the
lack of a true opposition. The PAP's policies have
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effectively prevented the opposition from
organizing protests, strikes, and forming labor
unions.
The political landscape in Singapore is
characterized by the complex web of strategies
used by the PAP to maintain its grip on power, as
described by Painter (2004). These strategies
include intimidation, harassment of opposition
figures, media control, and manipulation of the
election process.Following the general elections,
periods between subsequent elections become a
continuous struggle against the system of a one-
party state. Recognizing the limitations of multi-
party politics in Southeast Asia, former Prime
Minister Lee Kuan Yew used his strong leadership
to implement reforms aimed at establishing
efficient institutions for political stability and
economic growth.
The PAP (People's Action Party) leadership was
challenged with balancing social development and
welfare with economic goals, promoting a welfare
system that emphasized self-sufficiency and family
values. Singapore has adopted an export-led
industrial strategy, supported by a network of legal
and financial institutions aimed at attracting
foreign direct investment (FDI). This policy has
been explicitly incorporated into the country's
development plans, and government intervention
has been significant.As a member of the group of
Asian newly industrialized economies (NIEs),
Singapore has been a prominent example of a
development state, with state-owned enterprises
playing a significant role in driving its economic
growth (Lee & Haque, 2006). Through foreign
direct investment (FDI) inflows, Singapore has
integrated its industrial sector into the global
marketplace. The country firmly adheres to the
principles of free market competition and trade,
acknowledging that isolation is not a sustainable
strategy. FDI has acted as a crucial catalyst for
Singapore's economic growth, enabling it to thrive
within the increasingly interconnected global
economic system.
Singapore serves as a significant driver for
economic expansion and development, which has
significantly impacted the evolution of its public
administration. This city-state is characterized by
a remarkable diversity of ethnic groups, as
industrial development and economic growth have
provided employment opportunities for people
from different ethnic backgrounds, including those
of Chinese, Malay, and Indian origin.The initiatives
for reform have consistently received unwavering
support from various stakeholders, including the
business sector, professional organizations,
foreign investors, and government officials within
the country. As a result, Singapore holds a
prominent position in terms of gross national
product (GNP) per capita, ranking ninth globally.
Singapore has established a reputation for being a
pioneer in the implementation of innovative public
sector management practices. These practices
involve a deliberate blend of foreign models, with
a strong focus on fostering domestic innovation.
The aim of this approach, as outlined by Turner in
2002, is to create a stable, efficient, and
accountable government that also promotes a
business-friendly environment.In order to achieve
this vision, Singapore initiated a process of
experimentation with new public management
(NPM) approaches in the 1980s. One of the key
initiatives introduced was performance budgeting.
Performance indicators, such as output volume,
quality, efficiency and effectiveness, were carefully
designed to measure the success of government
programmes. The approach to reform in the
country was characterized by a deliberate
hybridisation of foreign models in order to ensure
their suitability to local conditions. The launch of
the "Public Service for the 21st Century" (PS21)
initiative in 1995 was a significant milestone in
promoting a culture of excellence and continuous
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improvement in the public sector. In order to
attract the best talents to the public service, a
dedicated government scholarship program was
established at the university level. This initiative
was in line with the fundamental principle of
meritocracy, which is at the heart of Singapore's
public administration philosophy, as emphasized
by Jones.
Painter further emphasizes that these initiatives
are aimed at promoting and developing the most
talented
individuals,
with
accelerated
advancement for those who demonstrate
exceptional potential. As these individuals reach
higher positions within the organization, their
compensation is among the highest globally,
representing a strategic investment in building a
corruption-resistant environment. To maintain
this integrity, the government has implemented
strict anti-corruption measures for all forms of
misconduct, ensuring a disciplined approach to
governance within the public sector. Transparency
International has recently ranked Singapore as one
of the least corrupt countries in Asia and the sixth
globally in terms of transparency.
Unlike many other countries that have
implemented the formal contractual framework of
New Public Management (NPM), however,
Singapore has chosen a different approach. Instead
of relying on the National Public Management
(NPM) system, Singapore has established an elite
public service characterized by permanent
positions. This is consistent with the nature of its
highly centralized government, which does not
prioritize privatization in public sector reform.
Instead, it has pursued a path of “corporatization”
under public ownership, converting a number of
public utilities such as Singapore Airlines,
hospitals, the Port of Singapore, and television and
radio corporations into quasi-private entities
under public ownership. This approach allows
these organizations to adopt private management
practices while retaining public ownership. In
addition, the high degree of integration between
political and bureaucratic institutions in Singapore
results in a decentralized power structure with
strong institutional continuity, which ensures the
continuity of government capacity without
compromising its efficiency.
In the current context of globalization, there has
been a paradigm shift in the understanding of the
relationship between government and civil society.
This shift has moved away from the traditional
view of this relationship as a zero-sum game
characterized by conflict, towards a more
cooperative approach that recognizes the potential
for collaboration.This shift is evident in the initial
reactions of various sectors to this new initiative.
This development also reflects the current state of
affairs in public-private relations, especially in
light of the government's initial statement of its
intention to take a more active approach to
involving civil society.
While there has been an increase in opportunities
for citizens' involvement in civil society in
Singapore in recent years, further measures are
required to ensure that non-governmental actors
can be seen as equal and responsible partners in
the decision-making process.
Malaysia is a federal parliamentary democracy
with a constitutional monarchy as its form of
government. The country's population is
approximately 26.9 million people and is
composed of various ethnic groups, including
Malays, Chinese, Indians, and other indigenous
peoples.
Malaysia consists of 13 states and 3 federal
territories, each with their own assembly and
government led by a chief minister. Executive
power is vested in a cabinet led by a prime
minister, in accordance with the country's
constitution. Members of the lower house of
parliament,
known
as
the
House
of
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Representatives, are elected for a maximum of
five-year terms and number 219 in total.
Legislative authority is shared between the federal
and state levels of government.
The Malaysian government has established a
political and administrative system that aligns
with its national objectives of achieving
macroeconomic stability and promoting industrial
growth. Following its independence from British
colonial rule, the public service in Malaysia has
undergone significant transformations. The
establishment of a committee system, red book
plans, briefings, field training, and community
development initiatives has created a favourable
environment for the ethnic Malays, commonly
known as Bumiputra, to engage in political and
active
participation
in
economic
and
administrative activities (ADB, 1997).
To support
the
national
goals,
public
administration reforms have been implemented
incrementally. During the latter half of the 1960s,
the main objective was to stabilise the newly
formed nation while maintaining traditional public
administration functions. In the 1970s, attention
shifted to promoting development administration,
resulting in the establishment of various public
sector enterprises and statutory bodies. The
Manpower Planning Unit (MAMPU) was created to
lead administrative modernisation and human
resource development.In the 1980s, efforts were
made to restructure the public administration
system in order to inject dynamism into traditional
bureaucratic practices. Under the umbrella of the
"Malaysia
Incorporated"
concept,
reform
measures were implemented in order to enhance
the professional expertise of civil servants and
foster administrative leadership. Substantial
resources were allocated in order to increase the
capacity and effectiveness of educational and
training systems.
The evolution of trade and vocational standards
was pursued in harmony with changes in work
practices across different sectors. The private
sector was encouraged to contribute to national
development, while the government demonstrated
a flexible and pragmatic approach to its policies
and initiatives. In the late 1980s, a department
known as the "Productivity Management Division"
was established with the goal of improving
efficiency. This government div conducted
surprise inspections of government entities,
monitoring the standards and quality of public
services. The team conducted assessments of the
implementation of measures to improve
productivity, and guidelines for quality control
circles were developed to assist government
entities in establishing such systems.These
initiatives have fostered a culture of innovation
and efficiency in Malaysia, promoting participatory
management and improving the effectiveness of
government services. Measures have been
implemented to reduce costs, enhance efficiency,
and eliminate unproductive practices, leading to
improved service delivery.
Since its independence, Malaysia has achieved one
of the most impressive economic records in Asia,
with a real gross domestic product (GDP) that grew
at an average annual rate of 6.5% between 1957
and 2005. The economy experienced robust
growth in the early and mid-1980s, averaging
nearly 8% per year. This remarkable performance
was due to a combination of domestic investment
and foreign investment that facilitated the
diversification and modernization of the Malaysian
economy. Today, Malaysia is a major global
producer of electronics and electrical goods,
contributing to its position as a leading economy in
the region.The economic structure of Malaysia is
characterized by a diversified and multifaceted
economy
that
emphasizes
services
and
manufacturing, which has enabled the country to
achieve high-income status with an export
orientation. In line with its objective of becoming a
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developed nation by 2020, Malaysia has adopted a
comprehensive strategy to foster sustainable
economic growth and human capital development
for both government agencies and the private
sector.
In 2001, the Malaysian government unveiled a 10-
year master plan for the financial sector and capital
markets, aiming to enhance the efficiency and
transparency of government agencies and
government-linked companies. As part of this plan,
the government implemented key performance
indicators and performance-based compensation
systems for managers, as described in the DFAT
report (2005). These macroeconomic measures
have significantly improved the standards and
quality of public services, as noted in Yusoff
(2005). Furthermore, the establishment of a
mandatory client charter for each government
ministry and guidelines for defining performance
indicators in government agencies has fostered a
collaborative
relationship
between
the
government and businesses, as emphasized by EIU
(2006), Karim (1995), and Shafie (1996).
The government has established a successful
partnership with public officials in order to
enhance administrative accountability and ensure
the smooth implementation of innovative
programs and policies. Through this collaboration,
there has been a steady effort to introduce new
values, principles, and approaches aimed at
improving the quality of public services.The
Development Administration Circulars set out
strategies to enhance quality and implement a
"client charter". The commitment of top
management to change is evident in their policy
decisions and program designs, as noted by
Rahshanjani and Alam (1997).
The policy of "Malaysia Incorporated", introduced
in 1983, acted as a catalyst for establishing
collaborative relationships between public and
private sectors in policy formulation and
implementation. Inspired by the successful
Japanese development model, Malaysia sought to
foster cooperation between public and private
entities, promoting a culture of information
sharing and shared responsibility for social,
economic, and administrative advancement.This
policy shift,
known as “Look East”, fundamentally
transformed the public administration landscape
in Malaysia. Under this initiative, innovative
systems, methodologies, and procedures were
implemented in order to enhance efficiency and
effectiveness in public service delivery (ADB,
1997).
The Look East policy, implemented in Malaysia,
was accompanied by a heightened emphasis on
Islamic values within the government. Efforts were
made to eradicate corrupt practices among
officials. Consultative forums were established to
assist in reshaping the attitudes and values of
government employees towards the concept of
Malaysia Incorporated (Tilman & Tilman, 1997).
In response to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the
Malaysian government implemented a series of
measures to enable th
e nation’s economy to
weather the financial turbulence more effectively
than
other
regional
economies
(DFAT,
2005).These measures included strengthening the
authority of the Office of the Auditor General,
empowering it with the ability to conduct in-depth
audits and inquiries into the activities of various
government departments.Malaysia did not seek
assistance from the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) in addressing the aftermath of the financial
crisis, demonstrating its resilience. Additionally,
numerous state-owned enterprises were either
privatized or restructured, resulting in a reduction
in the size of the public sector. To further enhance
efficiency and accountability, the government
established dedicated task forces to identify and
streamline
bureaucratic
processes
across
government agencies. Moreover, all government
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entities engaging with the private sector and
citizens were required to prioritize customer
service. In 2004, the Malaysian government
articulated a vision for revitalizing state-owned
enterprises, aiming to improve their performance
and gradually reduce its ownership interest.This
initiative has yielded significant results through
the cultivation of a new generation of
entrepreneurs, the promotion of private sector-led
initiatives, creation of employment opportunities,
and promotion of ethnic harmony through the
integration of Malays into the mainstream
economy.
Malaysia has seen remarkable success in the
establishment of a partnership between political
leaders and government officials through various
stages of administrative reform. This has led to the
development
of
a
sophisticated
public
management system that is capable of
implementing policies for economic growth.
In order to achieve full industrialization and
economic growth, the Malaysian government has
made
concerted
efforts
to
implement
comprehensive administrative reforms. These
efforts have yielded notable achievements in terms
of the development of the public sector.
None of these four countries have implemented a
system of fixed-term employment contracts for
public administrators, and as a result, government
employees enjoy tenure. This has led to varying
outcomes. In Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, the lack of
a fixed-term contract system has contributed to an
unaccountable and inefficient public sector, while
in other countries, this approach has been more
successful. On the other hand, Singapore's
corporatized state structure and the "Malaysia
Inc." model in Malaysia have resulted in efficient
and accountable systems. This has been facilitated
by well-designed macroeconomic policies and
strong political leadership. Both countries have
been able to tailor reform programs to their socio-
economic circumstances.
It is worth noting that civil society's role in
Singapore and Malaysia is more limited compared
to other countries under consideration.
Conversely, electronic and print media in Sri Lanka
and Bangladesh play a significant role in public
policy discourse, contributing to a greater extent
than in Singapore and Malaysia, where civil society
organizations have less access to government
records and documents. It is worth noting that
corruption and inefficiency in the public sector is a
significant issue in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, to
such an extent that civil society organizations
sometimes need to collaborate in order to
influence public opinion. Due to the lack of
effectiveness of constitutional and regulatory
bodies, public confidence in established
accountability mechanisms is low in these
countries, leaving civil society with no unified
approach to influencing government decisions.
This situation allows powerful political factions to
exploit the situation and undermine the intentions
of reform efforts.
THEORETICAL APPROACHES
Among the various methodological approaches to
the study of administrative reforms, comparative
analysis and institutional reform theories stand
out as particularly notable. These methodologies
provide distinct sets of tools for the analysis and
implementation of administrative changes.
Cultural factors. Culture plays a significant role in
shaping the perception and execution of reforms.
Confucian traditions in countries like China and the
Republic of Korea give rise to distinct systems of
values and behaviors that must be taken into
account when implementing reforms.
Political Contexts. The political systems and
governance structures in place have a significant
impact on the implementation of reform
initiatives. For example, the one-party system in
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China enables swift changes, while multiparty
systems encounter greater challenges and require
building consensus.
Studying examples. The examination of case
studies provides a wealth of insight into the
successful execution of administrative reforms. By
analyzing the experiences of other countries, we
can learn valuable lessons from both their
successes and setbacks. These lessons can then be
applied to our own reform efforts. Comparative
analysis of various countries’ experiences allows
us to identify effective methods of administrative
reform. For instance, Singapore has achieved
success in implementing public administration
reforms through its strong centralization and
highly professional state apparatus. In contrast,
reform efforts in Indonesia have often been
hindered by corruption and bureaucratic
inefficiency.
CONCLUSION
The methodological approaches to administrative
reform in East Asia vary and are contingent upon
the unique cultural and political characteristics of
each country. A comprehensive approach that
takes into account these factors is essential for
successful outcomes. Examining administrative
reforms in this region holds great potential for
developing
efficient
public
administration
strategies. In this context, it would be beneficial to
explore the works of scholars such as Frensis
Fukuyama (2014), Eduard Li (2011), Devid Maggi
(2017) va Kim He Son (2019) who have
investigated the intricacies of cultural and
administrative reforms in East Asian societies.
These scholars' insights provide a solid foundation
for understanding the complexity of the
administrative landscape in this region.
The analysis of NPM reform initiatives in four
countries in South and Southeast Asia shows that
each nation's approach to implementing the
principles of NPM is unique. This is shaped by
various factors, such as political history, political
dynamics, macroeconomic conditions, state
traditions, the role of international development
agencies and the impact of civil society. In these
four cases, political commitment and leadership
have been identified as critical factors.
Singapore and Malaysia are examples of successful
reform efforts characterized by strong political
leadership and comprehensive reform programs.
On the other hand, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh have
adopted selective reform strategies aligned with
the short-term interests of ruling elites, influenced
by
recommendations
from
international
development agencies. Partisan politics have
hindered comprehensive reforms in these
countries. In the context of economic development,
Singapore and Malaysia have implemented certain
aspects of reform despite state dominance. Strong
political leadership played a significant role in
implementing these changes with minimal
opposition from organized groups.
The experiences of New Public Management
(NPM) reforms in Sri Lanka and Bangladesh
suggest that the main focus was on making
structural changes to the public administration
framework. However, there was no significant
effort to establish a rule-based governance system
or
develop
the
necessary
institutional
infrastructure to support NPM initiatives. As a
result, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka faced significant
challenges managing the transition process,
making it a risky political endeavour. This implies
that countries such as Bangladesh and Sri
Lankalike, which lack strong leadership and
effective accountability mechanisms, are unlikely
to achieve successful outcomes from their NPM
reforms.
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