Volume 03 Issue 12-2023
26
American Journal Of Social Sciences And Humanity Research
(ISSN
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2771-2141)
VOLUME
03
ISSUE
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AGES
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SJIF
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FACTOR
(2021:
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OCLC
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1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
ABSTRACT
Childhood, especially early childhood, is one of the most important periods in a person’s life. During this period of
rapid development, the foundations of character education are laid, which will play an important role in the future
lives of children, the infrastructure of their cognitive future is formed, they begin to perceive the environment,
worldviews and emotions are highly developed. This period, which is directly related to the future life of a person,
should be managed very well, awareness should be created among families and education should be planned
accordingly. This study uses sports pedagogy and psychomotor development of children, including the processes of
mental and physical development, Freud's psychoanalytic theory, Erikson's theory of psychosocial development,
Piaget's theory of cognitive development, Robert Havighurst's theory of development, Arnold Gesel's theory of
maturation. Social learning theory and Bandura's theory were reviewed. The study paid special attention to
psychomotor and developmental theories, as well as their descriptive analysis from the point of view of sports
pedagogy. Another issue of sports pedagogy is related to the cognitive and mental development of children. As a
result of the study, we drew attention to the fact that families and schools, especially the ministry and our athletes,
have a great responsibility to ensure maximum preparation for sports life.
KEYWORDS
Child development, psychomotor skills, motor activity, sports pedagogy, sports, physical exercises.
INTRODUCTION
Research Article
SPORTS PEDAGOGY BASED ON PSYCHOMOTOR AND DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES
Submission Date:
December 01, 2023,
Accepted Date:
December 05, 2023,
Published Date:
December 10, 2023
Crossref doi:
https://doi.org/10.37547/ajsshr/Volume03Issue12-05
Yarasheva Dilnoza
Asian International University Physical Culture Department Lecturer, Uzbekistan
Journal
Website:
https://theusajournals.
com/index.php/ajsshr
Copyright:
Original
content from this work
may be used under the
terms of the creative
commons
attributes
4.0 licence.
Volume 03 Issue 12-2023
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American Journal Of Social Sciences And Humanity Research
(ISSN
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SJIF
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(2021:
5.
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6.
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(2023:
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)
OCLC
–
1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
Early childhood is defined as the period from birth to
primary school. During this period, the cognitive and
physical development of the individual accelerates,
while many foundations for their future life are laid and
formed. Developmental achievements have a great
impact on a child's life in subsequent years. Early
childhood is a very important and sensitive period in
this regard. But we should not forget that the
character, habits, attitude and behavior of an individual
are formed not only in early childhood. Factors such as
people's characteristics at birth, environment later in
life, education, preferences and diet also influence the
formation of their character, psychological and
physical structure.
During development, children are not yet fully aware of
their bodies, abilities, needs, environment and
interests. They find it difficult to express their feelings
and thoughts. For this reason, parents, adults caring
for children, and educators must know the child and his
development well so that he grows up to be a healthy
person.
To raise children mentally and physically healthy, it is
necessary to have a good knowledge of the
characteristics of their development. A good education
can only be ensured by knowing the developmental
characteristics of children. Physical activity, where
children can interact with the environment, nature,
objects and animals, should be a priority in children's
education. Children should be taught by seeing,
touching and moving around the environment. It is
necessary to ensure that children develop their fine
and gross motor skills through a variety of physical
activities and provide them with a foundation for
acquiring sports skills later in life. Parents and
preschool teachers must prepare the necessary
educational experiences at home to ensure specific
behaviors in children's developmental processes and
support their development.
This article reviewed existing theories in the literature
and attempted to evaluate them from the point of
view of sports pedagogy.
Psychomotor development
One aspect of early childhood development is
psychomotor
development.
The
process
of
psychomotor development is an issue that should be
well known and taken seriously, especially so that
children grow up mentally and physically healthy.
Psychomotor development is a natural process that
begins in the womb, increases in early childhood and
gradually declines in later years. The foundations of
motor-physical, cognitive-mental and social-emotional
development of a person are laid in early childhood.
In the sports and pedagogical literature on this topic,
the definition of the term “psychomotor” is often
interpreted differently. In some publications the
definition of this term is completely lost. The Duden
Dictionary of Foreign Words has a comprehensive
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explanation: “it experiences movements in accordance
with physical laws and at the same time expresses the
normal or pathological mood of a person.”
One of the most important features of the process of
psychomotor development is the continuous growth
and development of the child’s div. During this
period, the child's development includes both visible
and invisible growth, with movement coming first. The
baby's first communication with his mother is based on
the baby's movement.
The word motor literally means movement. Even
before birth, a person begins to develop physically in
the womb. Development accelerates in early
childhood. While movements such as blinking or
breathing continue as reflex movements throughout
life, movements such as walking, jumping or pressing
buttons are defined as conscious motor skills and are
considered within the framework of psychomotor
development. During psychomotor development, the
senses, mind, and muscles work together to ensure
that behavior is under control. Psychomotor
development is the acquisition of voluntary mobility in
parallel with physical growth and development of the
central nervous system.
Motor movements include all movements that a
person
experiences
and
interacts
with
the
environment. Motor skills are divided into two groups:
gross and fine motor skills. The motor system first
expands and develops through the use of gross and
then fine motor skills. The main requirement for motor
skills is a sufficiently developed nervous and muscular
system. It can be improved through sports and
exercise. Parents and teachers should provide children
with a variety of physical activities that will help them
develop gross and fine motor skills. Physical activity is
one of the factors that directly affects psychomotor
development.
When children begin to crawl and walk, this is the first
step towards independent movement. In this way,
children begin to stand on their own two feet and take
responsibility for their actions. Children's first physical
activity is gross motor skills. Gross motor skills include
the basic physical movements needed to move the
div. In order not to overexert yourself during physical
activity, it is necessary to use appropriate exercises
with a clear dosage. The basic forms of gross motor
skills are crawling, standing, walking, jumping,
climbing, etc. It's in shape. Fine motor skills can be built
when gross motor skills, which are the basis of motor
activity, begin to form. Therefore, children should be
taught areas such as balance, div awareness and
muscle tone, especially in the early years of life. Fine
motor skills are physical activities based on gross
motor skills and include all small movements. These are
precise movements that do not require much muscle
strength. Such skills require a calm mind, patience and
appropriate strength. Physical activities such as typing,
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Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
tying shoes, sewing, using scissors correctly, and
pressing buttons are just a few examples of fine motor
skills. Gross motor skills are often taught in sports and
therefore in athletics. However, many disciplines, such
as the high jump or javelin throw, require very precise
technique.
Important elements of healthy and well-formed motor
skills are coordination, sensitivity and balance. Sports
and movement not only affect the development of
motor skills, but also help children be healthy and fit. In
psychomotor science, the health of the div affects
human psychology, and the psychological state affects
the health of the human div. Body and soul are
interconnected. The better the spiritual structure, the
more freely a person moves. When the div is sick,
people’s psychology also suffers.
The human div cannot be divided into div and soul.
Body and soul act as one, interdependent and
interacting. In this regard, it is necessary to pay
attention to the psychomotor development of children
and design programs accordingly when planning
education.
Freud's theory of psychoanalysis
Having a problematic relationship with psychiatry,
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was forced to transform his
scientific worldview into a philosophy of life. Freud
works as an assistant to the physician Theodor
Meinert, who presents the dogmatic theory of
localization. According to him, the cause of mental
illness always lies in local damage to the brain. After
this dissertation, Freud turned to the problems of
psychological research and finally, in 1884, began
experimenting with the use of cocaine. He sees that
these experiences lead him into the unknown and
thereby open the way to psychoanalysis.
Freud defined psychoanalysis in 1922 as follows:
“Psychoanalysis:
•
This is a method of studying mental processes
that are almost inaccessible;
•
One of the methods of combating neurotic
disorders, based on research;
•
It is a collection of psychological concepts
obtained in this way and gradually integrated into the
new scientific field. Today's schools of psychoanalysis
are usually grouped into four areas: the School of
Impulsive Defense, Ego Psychology, the School of
Object Relations and Self-Psychology.
Sigmund Freud, in his psychoanalytic theory,
emphasizes the psychological development of man
according to universal principles. According to Freud,
society also shapes a person's personality. Freud's
emphasis on the importance of early experiences in
shaping lifelong behavior patterns is valuable from a
developmental perspective.
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The concept of psychoanalysis developed by Freud is
used in three senses:
As a method of deep psychological research (Freud
obtained his psychological knowledge through
psychoanalysis).
A summary of Freud's teachings (Psychoanalysis places
a fundamental importance on sexuality).
As a form of treatment/therapy (you may not be able
to
get
rid
of
neurotic
disorders
without
psychoanalysis)
Treatment of any mental and psychomotor diseases
(especially neuroses); ability to love and work;
Reconstruction of personal life stories by highlighting
the repressed; make the unknown known; You could
say that this is introspection. Target groups: all age
groups
The theory of psychoanalysis is based on two main
principles:
•
Causal-psychological determination
•
It plays a much larger role in a person’s spiritual
life than unconscious phenomena.
In psychoanalysis, unresolved childhood conflicts are
considered the cause of mental disorders. Such
childhood experiences continue to influence the
subconscious and manifest as symptoms in adulthood.
Freud considered the cause of nervous disorders to be
instinctive conflicts and instinctive fixation (focus) on
the stages of sexual development (oral, anal, genitals)
in early childhood.
Psychoanalytic approach
In his 1900 book The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud
explains that the psychic apparatus consists of three
systems: conscious, preconscious and unconscious. As
Freud developed his theory, this model gradually lost
its relevance and function and was incorporated into
the Structural Model with the publication of The Ego
and the Id in 1923. According to Freud, moral and
personal development consists of the id, ego, and
superego. They are defined as:
IDENTIFIER; This is the most primitive part of a
newborn's personality. Then the Ego and Superego
develop from the Id. The id is the most primitive part of
a newborn child's personality and consists of basic
biological activities. The ego and superego develop
from the id. The id operates on the pleasure principle
and wants immediate satisfaction of needs such as
food, drink, removal of waste from the div,
avoidance of pain, and sexual pleasure. Try to avoid
pain and enjoy it. For example, a 5-month-old baby
walking down the street in his mother's arms wants to
breastfeed immediately when he is hungry. As the time
required to fulfill this desire increases, dissatisfaction
gradually increases. Because the id wants to satisfy its
needs immediately. Freud called the structure that
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controls the id and makes it unconscious the ego. ego;
It pushes into the subconscious actions that contradict
the biological structure of a person or do not
correspond to reality. This is a real human executive
organ. The function of the ego is to achieve harmony
within and within oneself. The ego does not seek
immediate pleasure like the id, but is willing to sacrifice
pleasure for real needs. The ego is the representative
of the external world. For example; It is the ego that
tells someone who is about to take a difficult exam and
wants to go to the cinema to postpone going to the
cinema and prepare for the exam. Freud calls the part
in which society believes, and the source of its right and
wrong decisions, the superego. Like the Id and Ego,
most of the Superego is unconscious. The superego
decides whether an action is right or wrong. The
internalization of the moral values of society mainly
shapes the consciousness of the individual. The
superego exists for an ideal, not for reality. superego;
Makes decisions based on inappropriate, inappropriate
moral values.
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
Psychosocial development theory was developed by
Erik H. Erikson (1902
–
1994). Influenced by Freud's work
in the early years of his research, Erikson adopted a
different view of personality development and his view
of personality as expressed in Freud's psychoanalytic
theory. While Freud emphasizes that the subconscious
and biological aspects of personality are more
important in personality development, Erikson
emphasizes that cultural and social factors are more
effective in development.
Erikson (1968) emphasizes the concept of personal and
social identity and expresses this in his theory of
psychosocial development. Emphasizing that physical
and mental development of the individual and social
change influence the formation of personality, Erikson
explains that personal development and identity crisis,
as well as social culture, change and historical/current
crises are inseparable and mutually determining.
Erikson defines personality formation as the
relationship
between
psychological,
social,
developmental
and
historical
characteristics.
Accor
ding to Erikson, “The personal development of
an individual, social change, the crisis of identity in his
life and the modern crises of historical development
cannot be separated from each other because they
complement each other.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
Jean Piaget has a major influence on philosophy,
psychology and education through his works, research
and writings. He worked particularly on mental
development and made classifications related to
intelligence based on the importance he placed on
structure. He classified these developments with their
structures and successfully applied these structures in
the field of psychology. Constructivist theory, which
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has lost its force and is still used in education; In his
opinion, the idea of structuralism changes depending
on the meaning given to the concept of structure.
It is believed that each new growing person makes
right and wrong decisions differently depending on the
period of his development. In their theories, Piaget and
Kohlberg emphasized that people make different
judgments depending on the period of their
development, and conceptualized them as age periods
called moral development. According to Piaget, moral
development develops through certain processes
similar to cognitive development, and the environment
influences a child's moral development. To monitor the
moral development of children, Piaget turned to
children's games and stories, in which he could
evaluate the rules and relationships expressed.
Therefore, he tried to understand children's ideas
about good and evil. According to Pigae, changes occur
in the moral development of children depending on
their age. According to him, children first see rules as
elements that must be followed, and then understand
the rules.
Piaget explained cognitive development by dividing it
into four qualitatively different main periods. These
periods;
•
Sensory-motor period 0-2 years.
•
2-7 years before the procedure.
•
Concrete service life: 7-11 years.
•
Abstract Transactions Ages 11 and older.
According to Piaget, during the sensorimotor period
(ages 0
–
2 years), infants interact with their immediate
environment, learning occurs rapidly, and they develop
behaviors consistent with their wants and needs. In the
preoperative period (2-7 years), children develop ideas
about such elements as space, object, time, cause and
effect, and prepare for specific operations. During the
period of specific operations (7-11 years), children are in
the process of mental development and begin to use
specific operations. Children know how to arrange
objects from largest to smallest and vice versa. Now
they can perceive the concepts of “big” and “small”.
Can measure, multiply, divide and think relative to each
other. During the period of abstract operations (12
years and older), the mental structure is active and
flexible, and complex problems can now be solved.
This period continues into adolescence. Children can
cope with environmental factors through their balance
skills and mental development.
Robert Havighurst's theory of development
Robert Havighurst argues that the interaction of
biological, social and cultural phenomena is effective in
the process of development. Havighurst argues that
there are certain tasks that people must accomplish at
certain periods of time. Movement, play and physical
activity are the goals he defines for children's early
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development. Havighurst describes development as a
lifelong learning process. The periods proposed by
Havigurt in his theory of development.
•
Infancy and early childhood (0-5 years)
•
Middle childhood (6
–
12 years) and adolescence
(13
–
18 years)
•
Early adulthood (19
–
29 years old)
•
Middle age (30-60 years)
•
Advanced Age (61 years and older)
Arnold Gesell's theory of maturity
Gesell believes that people come into the world with a
biological program, and says that "parents should
know how to raise a child according to the natural
instructions received from them, without imposing
certain rules."
The works of development theorists are devoted to
universal aspects of development. A key element of
these studies is that all children in the world develop
naturally (regardless of culture/society; their central
nervous system and organs are intact). Arnold Gesell
(1880-1961), a famous researcher and representative of
this movement, examined more than 1000 children in
his study and found that the children's ability to
understand, sit, stand or run was always in the same
sequence and at approximately the same age. . Gesell
places the concept of maturity at the center of his
research, thereby showing the influence of genetics on
human development. He argues that environmental
influences that disrupt development, such as
malnutrition, neglect, or abuse, are important to a
certain extent. According to Gesell and other
maturation theorists, a key requirement for successful
development is a “suitable environment.” He argues
that other elements follow a genetically determined
plan, that is, they arise spontaneously (in the div).
Understanding the universality of child development
(e.g., gross motor skills, physical growth, and perhaps
certain building blocks of the mind, etc.) within a
developmental framework has important implications
for social science research. This allows social workers
to recognize factors that are delaying the development
process and speeds up the adoption of decisive
interventions such as youth intervention, helpline calls,
and therapeutic education.
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
Influenced by behaviorist theory, the foundations of
social learning theory were laid by Rotter in the 1950s
and developed by Bandura and Michel in subsequent
years.
An important exponent of social learning theory,
Bandura advocates the importance of learning through
“observation” in human life. Observational learning
develops through four processes; This
•
do not pay attention
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•
keep in mind
•
repetition of behavior and
•
Reinforcement and motivation
Learning through modeling and observation comes to
the fore in social learning theory. Many relationships
can be learned by observing, modeling and imitating
other people. Bandura mentions three types of
models.
•
Live Model: A real person performing a specific
behavior.
•
Symbolic Archetype: A character or person
depicted in a film, television show, book, or other
media.
•
Verbal instructions: explanations of how to act
–
not given by a living or symbolic person.
The concept of self-efficacy is highlighted in Bandura's
social learning theory. Self-efficacy is the knowledge of
how to behave to cope with possible situations.
According to this theory, people's behavior is shaped
by their active participation and decision-making
efforts. According to Bandura's social learning (social
cognitive) theory, self-efficacy can be viewed in two
dimensions: the first is the ability of teachers to
demonstrate the behaviors needed for effective
teaching, persuasion, and judgment (self-efficacy). The
second aspect is teachers' beliefs and judgments that
student achievement can be improved through
effective teaching methods and techniques.
Evaluation of psychomotor and developmental
theories from the point of view of sports pedagogy
The concept of pedagogy comes from the ancient
Greek word Paideia, which means education. The
concept represents the highest development of man
through processes of learning and education that go
beyond school lessons. The word "paidea" comes from
the ancient Greek "pais", meaning child, and "agein" is
a combination of words meaning guidance and
guidance. Although there is some confusion in the use
of this term; It can be expressed as learning, culture
and identity, knowledge.
Sports pedagogy is a branch of sports science and
broadly covers education, training and development
through and with sports. Sports pedagogy is a science
related to sports and education through sports. In
addition to practical subjects, sports pedagogy is a
practical activity in physical education classes. From
this point of view, sports educators include not only
scientists working in this field, but also sports
educators working in schools, clubs, clinics, etc. The
German Duden Dictionary defines sports pedagogy as
“the science concerned with the tasks and possibilities
of sp
ort in education and training.”
Psychomotor and developmental theories are one of
the topics of sports pedagogy and occupy a very
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important place from the point of view of sports
science. Below is an attempt to evaluate sports
pedagogy from the point of view of psychomotor and
developmental theories.
Psychomotor
development.
The
process
of
psychomotor development in childhood, when
cognitive and physical development occurs intensely
and quickly, should be well known to parents, adults
and teachers. During this sensitive period, children
rapidly develop gross and fine motor skills, they begin
to recognize their bodies, become aware of their
abilities, and as a result of interaction and
communication, they begin to perceive and explain
first concrete, then abstract concepts. relationship
with the environment. Parents and educators should
include various physical activities in the process of
learning and physical development of children and, if
possible, carry them out in nature. Children need to
move, step on the ground, roll on the grass, touch
flowers, cats and dogs, see chickens, bees and cows
and learn how these things help them. Various
activities should be planned to develop gross and fine
motor skills. Care must be taken to ensure that children
are in the correct position. Children should be instilled
in sports habits by engaging in physical activity from an
early age.
Freud's theory of psychoanalysis: Freud argued that
early life experiences cause people to form patterns of
behavior that persist throughout their lives. He also
attributes the cause of mental disorders to unresolved
childhood conflicts. He argues that childhood
experiences continue to influence the unconscious and
manifest as symptoms in adulthood. According to
Freud, personality is formed in early childhood. When
this thesis is assessed from a sporting point of view;
Physical activity and fun in early childhood are effective
in making exercise a habit later in life. Parents and
educators should ensure that various physical
education activities are carried out during this period
so that children do not look at sports as a competition,
but as a means of play and entertainment.
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development: Human
phenomena come to the fore in Erikson's
understanding of the stages of psychosocial
development. It is emphasized that the development
process of children 0-5 years old is primarily influenced
by their parents and family environment, and later by
the environment, friends and representatives of
different generations. He says the sense of confidence
gained in early childhood has a positive impact on
children later in life. Parents encourage children to run,
jump, climb, etc. By supporting them, it should
encourage the development of entrepreneurship and
independence in children. In this process, stakeholders
must create an environment where children can play
and exercise. Children need to be helped to understand
their bodies and see what they can do with exercise. It
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Servi
is necessary to pay attention to the variety of physical
activities.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: Piaget
emphasized the mental development of children.
Piaget argued that environment, experience, and
social transmission are as effective in a child's
development as physical maturation. He also
emphasizes that moral development, like cognitive
development, occurs in successive periods and that the
child's active interaction with the environment
influences his moral development. To monitor the
moral development of children, Piaget turned to
children's games and stories, in which he could
evaluate the rules and relationships expressed.
Physical activity, sports, friendship in a team, rules of
the game and attitude towards opposing players are
also effective factors in the moral development of
children. Parents and teachers should teach children
that rules in games are not only rules, but also moral
elements. It was emphasized that respecting yourself,
your div and the opposing player, winning and
achieving success through sports is a good feeling, but
in a real sense this can only be achieved by maintaining
spiritual values. and fair treatment.
Robert Havighurst's Theory of Development: Robert
Havighurst's Development; He defines education as a
lifelong learning process that results from the
interaction of biological, social and cultural forces.
Havighurst says development in infancy and childhood
is based on physical activity, play and movement. In
this sense, it is necessary to prepare various sports
events for children, create appropriate sports grounds,
organize socio-cultural events and keep children active
in them. Thus , it promotes the mental and physical
development of children, and their socialization is
carried out.
Arnold Gesell's Theory of Maturation: Arnold Gesell
focuses on the stages of physical and motor
development of children and argues that children's
physical and motor development occurs in the same
sequence and at the same ages throughout the world.
They say that he finds the right environment for
successful development. This assessment is very
important from the point of view of sports pedagogy.
If the development processes of all children in the
world occur at the same age and in the same direction,
then why do sports succeed in some countries and not
in others? The answer to this question is the right
environment. If you look at countries that have
achieved success in the Olympic Games or other sports
competitions, you can see that they have adequate
sports grounds, a sports culture is formed from
childhood, and the educational environment and
programs are developed accordingly.
Bandura's Social Learning Theory: Bandura states that
learning occurs through observation. Additionally, a
person's self-efficacy beliefs define the goal he or she
is trying to achieve and lead to success. For children to
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164
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acquire sports culture and habits, the people they look
up to as role models must demonstrate exemplary
behavior. Role models here include family members at
home, school teachers and professional athletes in the
neighborhood. Children can improve by observing and
being positively influenced by these people. In this
sense, important tasks are assigned to the sports
community and the press.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Children are creatures who naturally want to move and
enjoy it. The family must satisfy these natural needs of
children in early childhood by diversifying physical
activity and creating the necessary conditions for
children. Particular attention should be paid to various
activities for the healthy development of children's
psychomotor skills. Children can run, climb, throw,
throw, jump, catch, etc. They should be provided with
physical activity. This way, children know their bodies,
their abilities and limits. In addition, during all training,
children should be focused on maintaining the correct
position. Families should not behave in ways that
undermine children's self-confidence in situations such
as making mistakes, falling or breaking something
during physical activity.
Another issue of sports pedagogy is related to the
cognitive and mental development of children.
Children should be helped to see the world better
through sports. It should be emphasized and taught
that sport is good not only for the div, but also for
the soul. Just as children learn discipline, success and
hard work to achieve rewards by following the rules of
sports, they must learn teamwork, cooperation and
respect for their opponents and develop into moral
individuals.
The sporting activities that children can participate in
should vary depending on the school and the
environment in which the school is located, as well as
at the regional and even national level, and depending
on the videos of famous athletes, photographs, etc.
that have attracted the children's attention , must be
published with the correct messages. Visual images
must be present in all forms of media. It is necessary to
support sports activities in which families participate,
to encourage children to become involved in sports
from an early age. Moreover, sport should be fully used
as a means of strengthening intergenerational bonds.
To build on the development and skills acquired in early
childhood and ensure their continuation into later life,
it is necessary to focus on sports activities and prepare
educational programs accordingly. In this sense,
institutions and organizations involved in sports,
schools, local governments, teachers and athletes face
important tasks in developing a sports culture, sports
ethics and sports habits in children.
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SJIF
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7.
164
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OCLC
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1121105677
Publisher:
Oscar Publishing Services
Servi
