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FORMATION OF CITIES IN ANCIENT KHOREZM BASED ON TERRITORIAL-
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND SPECIALIZATION
Razzakov Sardor Kenjavoy oglu
Master's student at Urgench State University
E-mail: sardortarix@mail.ru
Phone: 91-426-32-42
Abstract.
This article explores the development of urban centers in Ancient Khorezm based on
their territorial-geographic location and specialization. Using archaeological evidence, it
classifies cities into categories such as border towns, trade hubs, craft centers, and religious sites.
The study focuses on key archaeological sites like Khumbuztepa, Nurum, Koykirilgankala, and
Qalaliqir-2, revealing detailed insights into craft production, religious infrastructure, and
economic exchanges of the region.
Keywords.
Ancient Khorezm, Khumbuztepa, border cities, craft center, temple, trade routes,
archaeology, pottery, Kalalikir-2, Koykirilgankala.
Introduction.
In the history of ancient civilizations, the emergence of cities, their geographical
location, and functional specialization serve as key indicators of societal development. In
particular, the cities that emerged in the territory of ancient Khorezm during the pre-Christian
millennia are distinguished by their foundation on economic, cultural, religious, and defensive
functions. These ancient urban centers typically operated as border cities, trade hubs, craft
centers, and religious sites. Their location was closely tied to the natural geographic conditions
of the Amu Darya River basin, proximity to water resources, and intersections with caravan
routes. This article provides an in-depth analysis of the territorial and geographical features of
ancient cities in Khorezm, focusing on specialized centers such as Khumbuztepa, Nurum,
Qoyqirilganqala, and Qalaliqir-2.
Literature Review.
A number of local and international scholars' works serve as key sources for
the study of ancient Khorezmian cities and their specialization. The archaeological-ethnographic
expeditions led by S.P. Tolstov between the 1930s and 1950s played a crucial role in identifying
ancient fortresses, temples, and cultural strata. In particular, archaeological findings from
Kalalikir-2 and Qoyqirilganqala shed light on the structural features of religious centers and their
role within the broader state framework. The scientific research conducted by archaeologists
such as M. Mambetullaev, S.R. Bolelov, S.R. Baratov, V.A. Livshits, and V.I. Vainberg has also
provided significant material for the academic understanding of the subject.
Methodological Framework.
The research is based on historical-archaeological approaches.
Various scientific methods were employed to analyze the specialization of ancient Khorezmian
cities. Comparative and chronological analyses enabled the examination and periodization of
archaeological sites in relation to others. Stratigraphic methods were applied to analyze the
sequence of archaeological layers. Intercultural comparisons allowed for the assessment of
Khorezm’s culture in relation to other civilizations. Cartographic analysis using GIS
technologies facilitated the study of the strategic placement of these urban centers. This
comprehensive methodological approach made it possible to determine the historical function
and societal role of the archaeological sites.
Analysis.
The formation of ancient cities depended largely on their geographical positioning and
intended functions, which allowed them to evolve into different types of urban settlements.
These cities can be classified as follows:
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1. Border cities
2. Trade centers
3. Craft and artisanal production centers
4. Religious centers
One of the earliest specialized settlements formed in ancient Khorezm is the Khumbuztepa
archaeological site, located in the southern part of Khorezm, along the banks of the Amudarya
River. According to researchers, this site functioned as a ceramics production center. Through
the Amudarya, the artisans delivered the ceramic products they manufactured to other cities and
states. Pottery fragments (ostraca) bearing inscriptions found at this site indicate the presence of
state-commissioned production.
The question of when exactly this monument was founded remains one of the debated issues
among scholars. Some researchers associate its origins with the Achaemenid conquest, while
others point to an earlier period, namely the end of the 7th century BCE.
Khumbuztepa is located 17 km east of the city of Khazorasp, on the left bank of the Amudarya.
Today, a significant part of the site has been washed away by the waters of the Amudarya, while
another part has been appropriated by the local population. Only 4.6 hectares of the site have
been preserved. Khumbuztepa remained active from the beginning of the 6th century BCE to the
3rd century BCE.
In 1973, during the process of compiling the archaeological map of the Khorezm region, the
archaeologist M. Mambetullaev identified the site of Khumbuztepa and conducted research there
\[8]. The researcher thoroughly analyzed the ceramic items, terracotta sculptures, water vessels,
and their decorative motifs, discovered at the site. Inscriptions were also found at the site, which
were studied by V.A. Livshits. These inscriptions, dating back to the 1st century BCE, are
considered economic records, containing information about quantities of goods and names.
Based on this evidence, researchers have described the site as a crafts center. It is suggested that
ceramic products were produced on a state scale, and in return, the artisans received various
goods.
In 1996–1997, S.R. Bolelov carried out research at Khumbuztepa. He identified three phases of
construction in the site's development:
In the first phase, traces of semi-dug dwellings and huts were found. A two-tier kiln and a
workshop were also discovered at the site.
The researcher noted that the construction technique of the kilns resembles those found at
Uchtepa and Churnok in Margiana, which date to the second quarter of the 1st millennium BCE
\[3, p.31]. S.R. Bolelov dates this period to the late 7th century BCE – 6th century BCE \[2,
p.32].
In the second phase, the semi-subterranean dwellings and huts were filled with sand, and a new,
large-scale monumental workshop was constructed. Traces of a place of worship from this
period were also identified. The manufacturing technique of the ceramic items from this phase
differs from that of the first phase. The neck of jug-shaped vessels is clearly separated; the div
has a triangular curvature with a pointed end. Some surfaces of cylindro-conical ceramic vessels
were painted in red or had red slip applied. The interior and exterior surfaces of bowls and small
basins were also painted red. Such ceramic items are also characteristic of the Kozalikir site.
This phase is dated to the 6th–5th centuries BCE.
No architectural remains from the third phase have been identified, but numerous ceramic sherds
and wasters from this period have been discovered. It has been determined that this phase dates
to the late 4th century BCE.
Results.
At Khumbuztepa, kilns for firing pottery, heaps of defective vessels discarded during
the production process, numerous ceramic fragments and refuse pits were discovered. The
heights of the kilns ranged from 2.2 to 7.5 meters, and around them were found ash, broken
figurines, supports used during firing, fragments of baked and unbaked bricks, and egg-shaped
clay pellets weighing 50–100 grams. These finds substantiate the function of Khumbuztepa as a
craft production center for ceramic wares.
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Since 2011, the Southern Khorezm Archaeological Detachment of the Khorezm Mamun
Academy, under the leadership of S.R. Baratov, has been conducting excavations at the
Khumbuztepa site. Researchers discovered a Zoroastrian temple dating to the late 5th century
BCE [1, pp.33–42]. Three construction phases of the temple were identified, and it has been
substantiated as one of the oldest places of worship in Central Asia.
During the 4th–2nd centuries BCE, villages specialized in crafts began to take shape.
Archaeologists have recorded such villages near the Dovdon tributaries, specifically in the
Tarim-Qoya and Tuzqir hills, as well as in the Tuzqir and Nurum oases [4].
The Nurum site is located in the western part of the Sarykamysh delta, within the latitudes of the
Middle Davdaka channel, northwest of the Tuzkir elevation. Today, it corresponds to the
territory of the Dashoguz Province of Turkmenistan. Stationary archaeological investigations at
the site began in 1989. This site represents a village intended for the production of ceramic
goods, with a total area of 500 hectares. It is dated to the 1st century BCE – 1st century CE [5,
pp. 72–83].
More than 20 fortified dwellings were discovered at the site. Each dwelling contained two kilns,
and more than 40 kilns were identified in total. The construction techniques of the kilns resemble
those found in other regions of ancient Khorezm.
The Nurum craft center, located at the border of ancient Khorezm, was specialized in the sale of
craft products to nomadic tribes and served as a hub for mutual commodity exchange.
In border towns, at crossroads, and at crossings of the Amudarya River, cities were transformed
into trade centers. Among the cities located along trade routes were:
on the left bank of the Amudarya – Kaparas, Khazorasp, Qal’ajiq, Kohnauaz, Gurganj,
Okchagelin, Qanhkhaqal’a;
and on the right bank – Qoshqal’a, Toprakkala, Jigarbond, Sho‘raxon, Govurkala, Khojayli, and
others.
The fortresses built in border cities not only protected state territory, but also served as religious
centers for trade, craftsmanship, and agricultural oases.
In the territory of ancient Khorezm, fortresses that functioned as state religious centers have also
been identified. Large-scale temples of state significance were located at monuments such as
Kalalikir 2, Yelkharas, Koykirilgankala, and Shovot Toprakkala.
The Kalalikir 2 site is located on the left bank of the southern Davdon River, 10 km west of
Kalalikir 1 and 6 km northeast of Kozaliqir. It was discovered in 1938 by the Khorezm
Archaeological-Ethnographic Expedition (KHAEE) under the leadership of S.P. Tolstov.
Excavations were carried out in the 1950s, and further studies were continued from 1980 to 1991
under the direction of V.I. Vainberg [7, p. 286]. The site was constructed in the mid-4th century
BCE, and was destroyed by a major fire in the 2nd century BCE.
The plan of Kalalikir 2 is in the form of a regular isosceles triangle with a curved base. The
eastern wall measures 192 meters, and the western wall measures 202 meters in length. The
fortification walls have been preserved to a height of 5 meters. On the northern side of the
defensive wall is the main gate, which leads into a rectangular entrance complex. Opposite the
entrance lies a structure with a circular corridor. Traces of wall paintings have been found on the
walls of this building.
Conclusion.
A circular temple was constructed within the central area of the fortress. The
diameter of the temple is 24 meters, and it was built on a 2-meter-high platform. The temple
itself was also fortified with defensive walls. Its entrance gate was flanked by an oval-shaped
tower and protected with battlements. Inside the temple were interconnected walls forming a
corrugated structure, enclosing a rectangular central hall. Around this hall, more than 20 rooms
were identified, associated with economic and ritual activities.
A large number of ceramic items were discovered at the site, many of which were found intact.
Among them were ritons and water vessels. On some of the vessels, relief depictions of a rider
on a camel in front of a tree, a mythical beast, and a deer were found. Numerous terracotta
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figurines, molds for baking ritual bread, and ostraca with inscriptions in ancient Khorezmian
script were also discovered. The inscriptions found at Kalalikir 2 were deciphered by Livshits.
These contain lists of goods brought to and distributed from the temple, as well as names of
individuals.
The Koykirilgankalasite is considered one of the major temple complexes and cultural centers of
the ancient Khorezmian state, where astronomical observations were also conducted. The site
functioned as a grand temple dedicated to the deity of fertility — Brazman [6, p. 205]. The
center of the fortress was divided into two parts: one side was dedicated to the cult of water and
fertility — Anahita, and the other to the solar deity — Siyavush.
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