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PROTOCOL FOR A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF SELF-COMFORTING BEHAVIOURS ACROSS
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS: EXAMINING PATTERNS, MECHANISMS, AND SOCIO-
CULTURAL INFLUENCES OVER 50 YEARS
Obohwemu Oberhiri Kennedy, Phd
Department Of Health, Wellbeing & Social Care, Global Banking School/Oxford Brookes University,
Birmingham, United Kingdom; And Penkup Research Institute, Birmingham, United Kingdom
AB O U T ART I CL E
Key words:
Self-comforting behaviours, adverse
life events, emotional regulation, stress
management, attachment theory, developmental
psychology, clinical psychology, psychodynamic
theory, cognitive-behavioural theory, socio-
cultural influences.
Received:
05.04.2024
Accepted
: 20.06.2024
Published
: 30.06.2024
Abstract:
Background and Rationale:
Self-comforting
behaviors are a spectrum of conscious and
unconscious actions employed by individuals to
regulate emotions, manage stress, and maintain a
sense of security. These behaviors manifest
physically, cognitively, and socially, and are
prevalent from infancy through adulthood.
Despite their adaptive functions, excessive or
maladaptive self-comforting behaviors can
contribute
to
psychological
distress.
Understanding these behaviors through various
theoretical frameworks is crucial for developing
effective interventions and promoting mental
health.
Objectives:
This systematic review aims to:
1.
Synthesize evidence on self-comforting
behaviors
across
different
theoretical
frameworks.
2.
Examine patterns and mechanisms
underlying self-comforting behaviors.
3.
Explore socio-cultural influences on the
conceptualization and practice of self-comforting
behaviors over the past 50 years.
Methods:
The review will integrate findings from
attachment theory, stress and coping theories,
developmental psychology, clinical psychology,
psychodynamic theory, and cognitive-behavioral
theory. Examining studies within these
frameworks allows the review to identify common
themes
and
patterns,
constructing
a
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comprehensive understanding of self-comforting
behaviors.
Results:
Preliminary findings suggest that self-
comforting behaviors serve crucial roles in
emotional regulation and stress management.
However, their maladaptive use can signal
underlying psychological issues. The review will
highlight the interplay of biological, psychological,
and environmental factors influencing these
behaviors and their evolution across the lifespan.
Conclusion:
A holistic approach, considering
multiple theoretical perspectives, is essential for
understanding self-comforting behaviors. This
comprehensive understanding will inform the
development of effective interventions to support
individuals in managing stress and enhancing
emotional well-being.
INTRODUCTION
Self-comforting behaviours encompass a range of conscious and unconscious actions individuals
employ to regulate emotions, manage stress, and maintain a sense of security. These behaviours
manifest in various forms, including physical, cognitive, and social dimensions. Physical manifestations
include actions such as thumb-sucking, blanket clutching, or repetitive movements like rocking
(Stockdale et al., 2020; Nonnenmacher et al., 2021; Fuertes et al., 2022). Cognitive strategies involve
internal processes like positive self-talk, visualization, or problem-solving (Rahmiati & Emaliana, 2019;
Flanagan & Symonds, 2022; Christopher, 2024). Social behaviours, such as seeking support from loved
ones, also fall under the umbrella of self-comforting mechanisms (Efklides & Misailidi, 2019; Mak, 2029;
Mule, 2023).
The prevalence of self-comforting behaviours extends from infancy to adulthood, highlighting their
enduring role in human adaptation (Nolan, 2020; Braune‐Krickau et al., 2021; Waters & Waters, 2024).
In infancy, these actions are often innate responses to distress, such as sucking or clinging to a caregiver
(Möller et al., 2021; Genna, 2022; Stevns & Hawkins, 2022). As individuals mature, self-comforting
strategies become more complex and nuanced, reflecting cognitive and emotional development
(Freedman et al., 2021; Nagabharana et al., 2021; Yang, Shu & Yin, 2022). For instance, adolescents may
engage in self-soothing behaviours like listening to music or spending time in nature, while adults might
rely on hobbies, exercise, or meditation to manage stress and maintain well-being.
Researchers from various disciplines, including psychology, developmental science, and psychiatry,
have taken an interest in these behaviours. Although often overlooked or considered transitory, self-
comforting behaviours serve crucial functions in emotional regulation, stress management, and
maintaining a sense of well-being (Feldman, 2007). While self-comforting behaviours typically serve as
adaptive coping mechanisms, their excessive or maladaptive use can contribute to psychological
distress (Kalinowski & Leibenluft, 2016). For example, excessive thumb-sucking in childhood or
compulsive nail-biting in adulthood may indicate underlying emotional difficulties. Moreover, the
reliance on certain self-comforting behaviours, such as substance use or avoidance coping, can have
detrimental consequences for overall health and well-being.
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Self-comforting behaviours become particularly salient in the face of adverse life events, such as the
loss of a loved one, near-death experiences, loss of investment, or academic failure (Mine, 2014). These
challenging experiences often trigger increased reliance on self-comforting behaviours as a means of
coping with intense emotional distress and uncertainty (Skinner et al., 2016). Understanding how self-
comforting behaviours function during such times can provide deeper insights into their adaptive and
maladaptive roles.
Understanding the complex interplay between self-comforting behaviours, individual differences, and
environmental factors is crucial for developing effective interventions and promoting mental health. By
exploring the various forms, functions, and outcomes of self-comforting behaviours, researchers can
gain valuable insights into human behaviour and develop strategies to support individuals in
developing healthy coping mechanisms.
To fully comprehend the complexities of self-comforting behaviours, it is imperative to examine them
through the lens of multiple theoretical frameworks. This review considers the interplay between
attachment theory, stress and coping, developmental psychology, and clinical psychology to elucidate
the multifaceted nature of these behaviours. Synthesizing findings from these diverse perspectives will
allow us to illuminate the complex interplay of biological, psychological, and environmental factors
influencing the emergence, development, and function of self-comforting behaviours. By examining
studies that explore self-comforting behaviours within different theoretical frameworks
—
such as
attachment theory, stress and coping, infant development, psychopathology, cognitive-behavioural
theory, and psychodynamic theory
—
common themes and patterns can be identified to construct a
more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon.
Attachment theory, as proposed by Bowlby (1969), provides a foundational framework for
understanding self-comforting behaviours. According to this theory, early interactions with caregivers
shape an individual's ability to regulate emotions and cope with stress. Secure attachment
relationships, characterized by consistent and responsive caregiving, foster the development of
effective self-comforting strategies. In contrast, insecure attachment patterns, resulting from
inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving, may lead to maladaptive self-comforting behaviours. For
example, children with secure attachments are more likely to develop healthy coping mechanisms, such
as seeking comfort from trusted individuals, while those with insecure attachments may resort to self-
soothing behaviours like thumb-sucking or rocking to manage distress.
Stress and coping theories, such as those proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984), further elucidate
the role of self-comforting behaviours in managing stress. These theories emphasize the dynamic
process of coping, wherein individuals appraise stressful situations and employ various strategies to
manage their emotional responses. Self-comforting behaviours can be viewed as coping strategies that
individuals use to mitigate the impact of stressors. For instance, cognitive strategies like positive self-
talk and visualization help individuals reframe stressful situations and maintain a sense of control.
Similarly, physical and social self-comforting behaviours provide immediate relief from stress and
promote emotional regulation.
Developmental psychology offers additional insights into the evolution of self-comforting behaviours
across the lifespan. From a developmental perspective, self-comforting behaviours emerge early in life
as innate responses to distress and gradually become more sophisticated with age. Infants rely on basic
self-soothing actions, such as sucking and clinging, to regulate their emotions. As children grow, they
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develop more complex self-comforting strategies, such as engaging in imaginative play or seeking social
support. Adolescents and adults continue to refine these behaviours, incorporating activities like
exercise, hobbies, and mindfulness practices into their coping repertoire. This developmental trajectory
underscores the adaptive nature of self-comforting behaviours and their role in promoting resilience
and emotional well-being.
Clinical psychology contributes to our understanding of the maladaptive aspects of self-comforting
behaviours. While these behaviours are generally adaptive, their excessive or inappropriate use can
signal underlying psychological issues. For example, compulsive behaviours like nail-biting, hair-
pulling, or skin-picking may indicate anxiety or obsessive-compulsive tendencies. Similarly, reliance on
substance use or avoidance coping can exacerbate mental health problems and hinder effective stress
management. Clinical interventions often aim to address these maladaptive behaviours by promoting
healthier coping strategies and enhancing emotional regulation skills.
Psychodynamic theory, rooted in the work of Freud (1923), offers a different perspective on self-
comforting behaviours. This theory posits that these behaviours may serve as defense mechanisms to
protect the individual from unconscious conflicts and anxieties. For instance, repetitive actions like
rocking or tapping may provide a sense of control and predictability in the face of internal turmoil.
Understanding the psychodynamic underpinnings of self-comforting behaviours can inform
therapeutic approaches that address the deeper emotional and psychological needs of individuals.
Cognitive-behavioural theory (CBT) also provides valuable insights into self-comforting behaviours.
CBT posits that thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are interconnected, and that changing maladaptive
thought patterns can lead to healthier behaviours and emotional states. Self-comforting behaviours can
be understood within this framework as strategies to manage negative thoughts and emotions. For
example, cognitive restructuring techniques can help individuals challenge and reframe negative self-
talk, while behavioural interventions can promote the adoption of healthier self-comforting practices,
such as engaging in physical activity or practicing mindfulness.
The integration of these theoretical perspectives highlights the multifaceted nature of self-comforting
behaviours and underscores the importance of a holistic approach to understanding and addressing
these behaviours. By considering the interplay of attachment, stress and coping, developmental, clinical,
psychodynamic, and cognitive-behavioural factors, researchers and practitioners can develop more
comprehensive and effective interventions to support individuals in managing stress and enhancing
emotional well-being.
Objectives
This review aims to:
1.
Synthesize evidence on self-comforting behaviours across different theoretical frameworks.
2.
Examine patterns and mechanisms underlying self-comforting behaviours.
3.
Explore how socio-cultural influences have shaped the conceptualization and practice of self-
comforting behaviours over the last 50 years.
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Research Questions
1.
What self-comforting behaviours have been studied across various theoretical frameworks (e.g.,
psychological, sociological, cultural)?
2.
What mechanisms (cognitive, emotional, physiological) underlie self-comforting behaviours?
3.
How do self-comforting behaviours vary across socio-cultural contexts?
4.
What trends and patterns can be observed over the last 50 years in the study of self-comforting
behaviours?
METHODS
Eligibility Criteria
•
Study Design: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods studies.
•
Population: Humans across all age groups and demographics.
•
Intervention/Exposure: Self-comforting behaviours, defined as any action or strategy employed by
individuals to soothe emotional distress.
•
Comparator: Studies without a focus on self-comforting behaviours or studies examining unrelated
constructs.
•
Outcomes:
o
Primary: Types and frequency of self-comforting behaviours.
o
Secondary: Mechanisms (e.g., cognitive reframing, emotional regulation), socio-cultural
determinants, and patterns over time.
•
Language: Studies published in English.
•
Time Frame: Published from 1973 to 2023 (50 years).
Databases and Search Strategy
The PRISMA guidelines (Page et al., 2021) would be adhered to. The review protocol is to be registered
on PROSPERO. The search is scheduled for July to August 2024.
The following databases will be searched:
1.
PsycINFO
2.
PubMed
3.
Scopus
4.
Web of Science
5.
Sociological Abstracts
6.
AnthroSource
The search string for PubMed is shown in Table 1.
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Table 1: Search String for PubMed
("self-comforting" OR "self-soothing" OR "emotion regulation" OR "coping strategies")
AND ("psychological framework" OR "sociological framework" OR "cultural anthropology")
AND ("mechanisms" OR "patterns" OR "socio-cultural influences")
Screening and Selection Process
•
Stage 1: Title and Abstract Screening
Titles and abstracts will be screened independently by two reviewers.
•
Stage 2: Full-Text Review
Full texts of potentially eligible studies will be retrieved and reviewed for inclusion by two reviewers.
•
Disagreements will be resolved through discussion or consultation with a third reviewer.
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria for Screening:
1.
Inclusion: Studies focusing on self-comforting behaviours, mechanisms, patterns, and socio-
cultural influences.
2.
Exclusion: Studies focusing solely on interventions unrelated to self-comforting behaviours (e.g.,
pharmacological treatments).
Data Extraction
A standardized data extraction form will capture the following:
1.
Study Characteristics:
o
Author(s), year, title, journal, and country.
2.
Population:
o
Age, gender, and cultural/socio-economic background.
3.
Theoretical Framework:
o
Framework used (e.g., psychological, sociological).
4.
Self-Comforting Behaviours:
o
Descriptions and definitions, categorized by type (physical, cognitive, emotional).
5.
Mechanisms and Outcomes:
o
Mechanisms identified and their reported outcomes.
6.
Socio-Cultural Influences:
o
Contextual factors shaping the behaviours.
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7.
Trends and Patterns:
o
Temporal trends or significant changes over time.
Quality Assessment
The following tools will be used for quality assessment:
•
Quantitative Studies: Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Checklist.
•
Qualitative Studies: Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist.
•
Mixed-Methods Studies: Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT).
Data Synthesis
•
Quantitative Data:
o
A narrative synthesis approach will summarize patterns, mechanisms, and socio-cultural
influences.
o
Where applicable, meta-analytic techniques will estimate pooled effects of mechanisms or
behaviours across studies.
•
Qualitative Data:
o
Thematic synthesis will be used to identify recurring themes related to socio-cultural influences
and behavioural mechanisms.
•
Temporal Trends:
o
Studies will be grouped by decade to observe patterns or shifts in research focus.
Limitations and Bias
Potential biases include:
1.
Exclusion of non-English studies may lead to underrepresentation of non-Western perspectives.
2.
Publication bias may favour studies with significant findings, leading to underreporting of null
results.
3.
Variation in definitions of self-comforting behaviours across studies may limit direct
comparisons.
Timeline
The proposed timeframe for the research is shown below:
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Table 2: Research Timeline
DISSEMINATION
Findings will be disseminated through:
1.
Peer-reviewed journal publications.
2.
Conference presentations in psychology and sociology forums.
3.
Executive summaries shared with mental health practitioners and educators.
Registration and Reporting
This protocol will be registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews
(PROSPERO). The review will adhere to the PRISMA guidelines to ensure transparency and rigor.
CONCLUSION
Self-comforting behaviors play a vital role in emotional regulation, stress management, and maintaining
a sense of well-being across the lifespan. Examining these behaviours through multiple theoretical
frameworks
—
attachment theory, stress and coping, developmental psychology, clinical psychology,
psychodynamic theory, and cognitive-behavioural theory
—
this research aims to provide a
comprehensive understanding of their adaptive and maladaptive functions.
The integration of these perspectives highlights the complexity of self-comforting behaviours and
underscores the importance of a holistic approach to studying them. Recognizing the interplay between
individual differences, environmental factors, and cultural influences is crucial for developing effective
interventions that promote healthy coping mechanisms and enhance mental health.
Future research should continue to explore the nuanced roles of self-comforting behaviours in various
contexts and populations. By doing so, we can better support individuals in developing adaptive
strategies to navigate life's challenges, ultimately contributing to improved psychological resilience and
overall well-being.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
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The publication of this article was supported by PENKUP Foundation, a non-profit organisation founded
by the author.
FUNDING
This work was supported by the PENKUP Foundation, a division of PENKUP International, which
provided funding for the publication of this article.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to acknowledge the management and technical staff of PENKUP Research
Institute, Birmingham, UK, for their excellent assistance and for providing medical writing and editorial
support in accordance with Good Publication Practice (GPP3) guidelines.
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