INTELLIGENCE GATHERING AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO NIGERIA'S NATIONAL SECURITY: A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT

Ayodele P. Olowonihi; Dr. M. O. Musa

doi:10.37547/tajiir/Volume06Issue11-09

Authors

Ayodele P. Olowonihi
PhD Student City University, Cambodia
Dr. M. O. Musa
Department of Cybersecurity, Faculty of Computing, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.37547/tajiir/Volume06Issue11-09

Keywords:

Intelligence gathering National Security HUMINT

Abstract

The Nigerian intelligence sector faces institutional limitations that hinder the successful implementation of intelligence collecting, which is widely acknowledged as a crucial tool in tackling these issues. This paper provides a thorough evaluation of the function of intelligence gathering within Nigeria's national security framework, analysing its effectiveness in dealing with current security challenges. This study seeks to offer a thorough examination of the intelligence cycle in the Nigerian setting, including the gathering, analysis, and use of intelligence in national security strategy. The research used a mixed-methods methodology, combining quantitative data obtained from a questionnaire with qualitative insights obtained from an empirical literature analysis. The Network Theory (TNT) functions as the conceptual framework, providing a perspective to examine the intricate connections and transmission of information within the intelligence network. Statistical analysis is conducted on the questionnaire results using descriptive and inferential methods, while the findings of the literature review are consolidated to offer context and depth. The study results highlight a significant dependence on Human Intelligence (HUMINT) and source intelligence (OSINT) in Nigeria, with a lack of implementation of Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT) and a disregard for Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT). Furthermore, the investigation exposes inadequate levels of trust and collaboration between intelligence agencies and other security organizations. The major obstacles mentioned are insufficient financial resources, insufficient training and knowledge, technical constraints, competition among different agencies, and legal and bureaucratic restrictions. The research findings indicate that although intelligence gathering is of utmost importance for Nigeria's national security, its efficacy is hindered by structural and operational obstacles. personnel growth and comprehensive strategy to improve intelligence capabilities, which involves bolstering inter- agency collaboration, allocating resources to technical progress and skilled personnel growth, and creating a strong legal and ethical structure.

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PUBLISHED DATE: - 04-11-2024
DOI: -

https://doi.org/10.37547/tajiir/Volume06Issue11-09

PAGE NO.: - 142-176

INTELLIGENCE GATHERING AND ITS
CONTRIBUTION TO NIGERIA'S NATIONAL
SECURITY: A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT

Ayodele P. Olowonihi

PhD Student City University, Cambodia

Dr. M. O. Musa

Department of Cybersecurity, Faculty of Computing, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

ORCID

:

https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7336-5709

INTRODUCTION

National security, or the comprehensive protection of a nation-state against both internal and foreign

dangers, includes the preservation of territorial

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Open Access

Abstract

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integrity, sovereignty, political stability, economic
prosperity, and the well-being of its people. The
idea of national security has evolved globally,
moving beyond traditional military defense to
include economic, environmental, and human
security components (Buzan, Waever, & de Wilde,
1998). In today's interconnected globe, security
threats have evolved beyond traditional military
conflicts to encompass cyberattacks, terrorism,
pandemics, and international organized crime. As
a result, national security plans have become more
comprehensive and interdisciplinary, requiring
the integration of military,

economic, and diplomatic tools, as well as strong
intelligence collecting and analysis capabilities
(Collins, 2016).

A convergence of historical and modern forces has
influenced Nigeria's national security issues over
time. Since its independence in 1960, Nigeria has
faced numerous security issues, including civil
war, military coups, ethnic and religious conflicts,
insurgency, and terrorism (Onapajo &

Uzodike, 2022). The Nigerian Civil War (1967-
1970), which was motivated by historical ethnic
conflicts and regional imbalances, posed a
substantial early danger to the country's
sovereignty and continued to impact its security
landscape (Ukiwo, 2007). The post-civil war era in
Nigeria has been characterized by persistent
challenges to democratic governance, including
frequent military interventions and political
instability (Adebayo, 2023).

The twenty-first century has brought new security
concerns to Nigeria, namely terrorism and
insurgency. The development of Boko Haram, a
violent extremist organization, poses a serious
threat to national security (Onuoha, 2014). Since
its commencement in 2009, Boko Haram's
insurgency has caused massive casualties,
displacement, and destruction in the northeastern

region (OCHA, 2023). The group's operations not
only jeopardized Nigeria's domestic security but
also drew international attention, driving regional
and global measures to combat terrorism in
West Africa (ICG, 2021). Nigeria also has security
difficulties such as kidnapping, armed robbery,
farmer-herder confrontations, and organized
criminal activity (Albert 2015). Poverty,
unemployment, and inequality all contribute to the
rise of violent non-state actors (Akinola, 2015).
Furthermore, Nigeria's security architecture has
been chastised for alleged ineffectiveness,
corruption, and a lack of coordination, limiting its
ability to appropriately address these threats (Ewi
C Salifu, 2017). In this environment, intelligence
collecting plays a critical role in recognizing,
preventing, and responding to security threats,
making it an essential component of national
security strategy

(Adetula,

2010).

Intelligence is the foundation of national security,
providing decision-makers with the crucial
information and analysis required to develop and
implement

effective

security

strategies.

Intelligence refers to the systematic collecting,
analysis, and dissemination of information about
potential threats, both internal and external. This
information is critical for averting assaults,
combating hostile activities, and protecting
national interests. The role of intelligence in
national security is critical, allowing governments
to anticipate and minimize risks before they
become full-fledged crises (Lowenthal, 2016).
Globally, intelligence agencies have played critical
roles in safeguarding sovereign interests. In the
United States, the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
are critical components of the national security
infrastructure, actively combating terrorist acts
and foreign espionage. Similarly, the United
Kingdom's Secret

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Intelligence Service (MI6) and Security Service
(MI5) offer critical intelligence to protect the
country from terrorism, organized crime, and
cyber threats. Nations such as Russia, China, and
Israel prioritize intelligence operations in their
security strategies, with agencies like the Federal
Security Service (FSB), the Ministry of State
Security (MSS), and Mossad tasked with protecting
national

security

through

espionage,

counterintelligence, and covert operations
(Perl,2020).

In Nigeria, intelligence is equally important for
national security. The country's intelligence
community is made up of numerous agencies,
notably the Department of State Services (DSS), the
National Intelligence Agency (NIA), and the
Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA). These agencies
collect intelligence on a wide range of security
challenges, including counterterrorism, economic
espionage, and cybersecurity. The DSS focuses on
domestic intelligence, namely threats such as
terrorism, insurgency, and organized crime. The
NIA oversees acquiring foreign intelligence and
dealing with situations that affect Nigerian
interests

overseas

(Adetula,

2020). Effective intelligence collecting in

Nigeria has been critical in combating Boko Haram
and other militant organizations. Intelligence has
played an important role in monitoring terrorist
activity, finding schemes, and interrupting
operations, making it critical to Nigeria's
counterterrorism efforts. Despite the importance
of intelligence in ensuring national security,
Nigerian intelligence organizations confront
significant obstacles, including insufficient money,
antiquated equipment, and little inter-agency
collaboration. These problems limit the
effectiveness of intelligence operations and
contribute to the persistence of security risks
(Onuoha, 2020).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Nigeria's security landscape is characterized by
complex and evolving threats. While intelligence
gathering is crucial in addressing these issues, the
Nigerian intelligence sector faces structural
limitations that hinder its effectiveness. These
constraints include insufficient funding and
resource allocation, which impede the acquisition
and maintenance of advanced technology for
intelligence gathering and analysis. Moreover,
inadequate

inter-agency

coordination

and

collaboration lead to fragmentation and inefficient
use of intelligence resources. The lack of a robust
legal and regulatory framework for intelligence
activities creates ambiguity and potential for abuse
of power, further undermining the sector's
efficacy. These structural challenges collectively
contribute to a suboptimal intelligence ecosystem,
limiting Nigeria's capacity to proactively and
effectively address its multifaceted security
concerns.

1.3 Purpose and Objectives of the Study

This study aims to critically examine the efficacy of
intelligence gathering in addressing Nigeria's
contemporary security challenges, providing a
comprehensive analysis of the intelligence cycle
and offering recommendations for enhancing its
contribution to national security.

Objectives

1.3.1. Research Objectives

i.

Evaluate the effectiveness of intelligence

gathering in addressing Nigeria's national security
challenges.

ii.

Examine the mechanisms of interface and

collaboration between Nigeria's intelligence
agencies and other national and international
security organisations in combating security
threats.

iii.

Identify the principal challenges confronting

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Nigeria’s intelligence community and propose

strategies to address them. This objective is geared
towards problem-solving and offering potential
solutions to enhance intelligence capabilities.

iv.

Quantify the contribution of intelligence

gathering to the success of counterterrorism and
anti-crime operations in Nigeria.

1.3.2 Research Questions

i.

To what extent is intelligence gathering

effective in addressing Nigeria's national security
challenges?

ii.

How do Nigeria's intelligence agencies

interface and collaborate with other national and
international security organisations to combat
security threats?

iii.

What are the principal challenges

confronting Nigeria

’s intelligence community?

iv.

What is the quantifiable contribution of

intelligence gathering to the success of
counterterrorism and anti-crime operations in
Nigeria?

1.4 Significance of the Study

This research holds significance on multiple fronts.
Primarily, it contributes to the scholarly discourse
on national security and intelligence by offering a
nuanced analysis of the Nigerian context.
Furthermore, the insights generated have the
potential to inform policy decisions and reforms
directed at enhanci

ng Nigeria’s intelligence

capabilities. The study underscores the pivotal role
of intelligence in navigating the complex and
evolving security threats that Nigeria faces in the
21st century.

1.5. Scope of the study

The scope of inquiry is multifaceted. It
encompasses an examination of the organizational
structure of Nigeria's intelligence agencies, the
methodologies and technologies employed in

intelligence collection, and the operational
challenges faced by intelligence personnel.
Further, the study investigates the application of
intelligence in specific security operations, such as
counterterrorism efforts against Boko Haram, anti-
kidnapping

campaigns,

and

cybersecurity

initiatives. The influence of international
cooperation and intelligence sharing on

Nigeria’s

national security posture is also considered.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

National Security

In Nigeria, national security is a multidimensional
and intricate concept that involves the protection
of the nation's sovereignty, territorial integrity,
and national interests from internal and external
threats (Obi, 2022). This necessitates an all-
encompassing strategy integrating political
stability, economic security, social cohesion, and
military defence. Throughout history, the security
landscape of Nigeria was significantly influenced
by the colonial era under British rule, which
prioritized the suppression of local resistance and
the preservation of colonial order through military
strategies and policies (Falola, 2021). The Nigerian
Civil War (1967-1970) was the culmination of the
nation's immediate security challenges, which
included political instability, regional rivalries, and
ethnic tensions following independence in 1960
(Ojieh, 2023).

Protecting the state, its sovereignty, territorial
integrity, and regime against external aggression is
the essence of the Nigerian national security
concept (Omenka et al., 2017).

Nigeria's internal security is imperilled by a variety
of security challenges, such as terrorism,
insurgency, banditry, militancy, and arms
importation (Ibani, 2024).

The nation's security agencies are responsible for
the protection and promotion of national security

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by implementing a strategic plan that underscores
the significance of border communities (Nnadi &
Okoye, 2022). Insecurity in Nigeria has resulted in
violence, impeded growth, and development, and
established a porous security environment that
affects economic sustainability and wealth
creation (Azu et al., 2021). Nigeria's economic
development and foreign direct investment are
significantly influenced by national security
(Opuala-Charles & Oshilike, 2022).

Nigeria is currently facing several urgent security
concerns. Since 2009, Boko Haram has become a
significant

threat,

conducting

insurgency

operations, kidnappings, and terrorist attacks in
the northeastern region (Onuoha, 2020). The
security situation has been further exacerbated by
the emergence of the Islamic State West Africa
Province (ISWAP), a dissident group from Boko
Haram, which has conducted attacks on both
military and civilian targets (Zenn, 2021).
Particularly in the Middle Belt region, where
disputes over land and resources are prevalent, the
country's diverse ethnic composition has
frequently resulted in communal conflicts
(Adebanwi, 2022). National security is further
compromised by political instability and
corruption, which erode public trust in institutions
and exacerbate grievances that may escalate into
disturbance (Agbiboa, 2020). The threat of
kidnapping for ransom has become pervasive, with
bandits operating in various regions, particularly
in the northwest, posing a threat to both locals and
foreigners (International Crisis Group, 2023).
Additionally, the nation's economic security has
been influenced by the historical targeting of oil
infrastructure by militant groups in the Niger Delta
to secure a larger portion of oil revenues (Watts,
2020).

The Nigerian government's response to security
challenges, including the Boko Haram insurgency
and abduction activities, underscores the necessity

for improved capabilities within security
institutions (TERZUNGWE, 2024).

The investigation of national security in Nigeria
encompasses examining various security threats,
including cyberterrorism, food security, and the
influence of internet-based communication
channels on national security (Kente, 2024;
Asogwa, 2020). Since independence, Nigeria's
foreign policy objectives have been fundamentally
influenced by its commitment to regional security
and its interventions in West African conflicts
(Ebegbulem, 2020). The condition of Nigeria's
borders and the ongoing debates surrounding
their impact on national security underscores the
complexity of border security issues in Nigeria
(Awosusi, 2023). In recent years, Nigeria has
encountered insecurity challenges that include
political violence, terrorism, banditry, abduction,
and other forms of criminal activity (Agaku &
Moses, 2020).

Nigeria is a prominent force in West Africa, and it
plays a critical role in regional security initiatives
on the international stage by contributing troops
to peacekeeping missions and mediating conflicts
in the region (Adebajo, 2022). The nation
collaborates with global powers such as the United
States, the United Kingdom, and China to improve
its security capabilities through intelligence
sharing, military assistance, and training
(Campbell,

2020).

Nevertheless,

Nigeria's

international

security

engagements

are

characterized by the persistent challenge of
reconciling national interests with international
expectations and navigating intricate geopolitical
dynamics.

Intelligence Gathering

Intelligence gathering refers to the methodical
acquisition and examination of information to
guide policymakers and military commanders.
This procedure ensures the protection of national

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security by the identification and evaluation of
both domestic and international risks and
opportunities.

The emphasis on comprehending the capabilities,
intents, and activities of foreign entities is
underscored by Shulsky and Schmitt (2023). They
prioritize the incorporation of human intelligence
(HUMINT) with technical gathering techniques
such as signals intelligence (SIGINT) and analysis
of open-source intelligence (OSINT). In his work
published in 2022, Clark argues in favour of
adopting a target-centric strategy that involves
cooperation among several stakeholders to
improve intelligence gathering and evaluation
procedures. The importance of information
gathering within the wider intelligence cycle to
facilitate efficient risk assessment and mitigation is
underscored by Sims (2021).

A wide variety of activities, from covert operations
and technical gathering to the examination of
publicly available data, are utilized to gather
intelligence, as Warner (2024) points out. The
main goal of intelligence gathering is to acquire
knowledge about the capabilities, intentions, and
plans of adversaries, therefore equipping decision-
makers with the essential information to predict
and successfully address threats.

Effective intelligence gathering is crucial for
making well-informed decisions in many fields.
Buthelezi (2024) analyses the crucial function of
intellect in preventing crime and enforcing the law,
emphasizing the significance of strong analytical
skills. The significance of precise and prompt
intelligence in guiding national security decisions
is underscored by Hasan (2022).

Omand (2022) conceptualizes intelligence
gathering as a methodical procedure designed to
provide information for security operations. He
emphasizes the need to follow ethical and legal
principles, particularly in situations such as

Nigeria where the task of reconciling security and
human rights is formidable.

In his report, Herman (2021) highlights the
significance of intelligence in mitigating ambiguity
within intricate security contexts, therefore
facilitating a more profound comprehension of the
intents and capabilities of adversaries. He
promotes the incorporation of recent technical
developments with conventional intelligence
approaches to tackle changing security issues. The
importance of efficient intelligence sharing, and
inter-agency cooperation is emphasized by Pillar
(2020), especially in situations such as Nigeria
where cooperative endeavours are vital.

This study by Aldrich (2021) investigates the
profound influence of technology and globalization
on intelligence operations, resulting in changes to
the techniques of gathering and using data. To
effectively counter the ever-changing nature of
security threats, he emphasizes the requirement of
agility and adaptability in intelligence operations.

A study by Capie (2020) examines how intelligence
enhances

defense

collaboration

between

countries, therefore promoting regional security
and protecting national sovereignty. Neo (2022)
examines the function of intelligence in combating
misinformation and disinformation networks,
emphasizing its increasing significance in the era
of digital technology. Specifically, Luong (2020)
and Sinpeng (2020) analyze the function of
intelligence in fighting international crime and
tackling the obstacles presented by digital media
and internet censorship, respectively.

African academics provide invaluable insights into
the field of intelligence gathering. Vale (2021,
2023) highlights the significance of intelligence
gathering in ensuring state security and managing
regional stability, promoting a comprehensive
approach that encompasses all African countries.
The significance of combining security imperatives

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with human rights safeguards is underscored in
Madlingozi's (2021) analysis of the legal and
constitutional frameworks controlling intelligence
operations.

North African experts underscore the need of
intelligence gathering in effectively tackling
regional security issues. Khelil (2022, 2023)
supports the incorporation of artificial intelligence
(AI) and big data analytics to further improve
intelligence operations. El-Naggar (2021, 2022,
2023) emphasizes the central importance of
intelligence in the fight against terrorism and
political instability, while also drawing attention to
the impact of regional politics on intelligence
operations.

Hassan

(2020,

2021,

2023)

emphasizes the requirement of adaptive and
responsive intelligence operations to effectively
tackle changing threats. Youssef (2020, 2021,
2022) analyses the difficulties associated with
intelligence management in North Africa, such as
the overwhelming amount of data, heightened
competition among agencies, and legal limitations.
The study conducted by Boudiaf (2021, 2022,
2023) underscores the influence of regional wars
and political instability on intelligence operations,
underscoring the imperative of establishing robust
intelligence frames.

The Boko Haram insurgency highlights the
ongoing security issues in Nigeria, highlighting the
need to gain a more comprehensive knowledge of
extremist organisations and their influence on
national security (Onuoha, 2011; Ajodo-
Adebanjoko et al., 2019). The effectiveness of
security responses to such conflicts underscores
the requirement of ongoing capacity development
to

successfully

tackle

emerging

threats

(TERZUNGWE et al., 2024).

Challenges in data collecting, such as limited
availability, underutilization, and inconsistencies
in data administration, hinder the effectiveness of

intelligence operations in Nigeria (Awotayo,
2023).

Informing

decision-making

processes

in

policymaking,

military

operations,

law

enforcement, and crisis management, intelligence
collecting is of paramount importance (Houghton,
2020; Barnett, 2021; Marrin, 2022; Beehner, 2023;
Ratcliffe, 2020; Bjelopera, 2023).

The many perspectives provided by specialists
from throughout the globe emphasize the intricate
difficulties and possibilities linked to intelligence
gathering in a constantly changing global
environment.

2.2 Types of Intelligence

2.2.1 Human Intelligence (HUMINT)

Human Intelligence (HUMINT) is a fundamental
element of both national security and intelligence
activities. Qualitative research is the systematic
gathering and examination of data by direct
interpersonal contacts. The significance of
HUMINT resides in its ability to offer an intricate
understanding of events, motivations, and
intentions, which are sometimes unachievable
strictly through technological methods (Johnson,
2019).

The application of Human Intelligence (HUMINT)
has been crucial in counter-terrorism efforts
targeting Boko Haram and other radical
organizations. The provision of crucial intelligence
on the whereabouts, intentions, and actions of
persons by informants and undercover operatives
has facilitated the disruption of planned attacks
and the interception of communication lines
(Onapajo & Uzodike, 2022).

Human Intelligence (HUMINT) has played a crucial
role in comprehending the fundamental
grievances, ethnic tensions, and external factors
that contribute to internal conflicts and
insurgencies, especially in the Middle Belt and

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southern regions. The acquisition of this
knowledge has influenced the development of
tactics that target the fundamental reasons behind
these disputes and promote confidence among
local populations (Olaniyan & Okunola, 2021).

Moreover, HUMINT has provided insight into
political instability and corruption, revealing
complex collaborations between powerful
politicians and criminal organizations, and
revealing illegal actions that weaken security
measures. Acquisition of this knowledge is crucial
for guiding strategic decision-making and
fostering responsibility (Adebanwi & Obadare,
2019).

Nevertheless, human intelligence (HUMINT)
activities in Nigeria encounter obstacles because of
the intricate socio-political environment and the
possibility of deception. The existence of multiple
ethnic groups and regional inequalities can affect
the ability to develop trustworthy sources and
maintain operational security (Akinyetun &
Olaniyi, 2020).

2.2.2 Signal Intelligence (SIGINT)

Signals intelligence (SIGINT) is the comprehensive
interception and analysis of electronic signals and
communications that plays a crucial role in
contemporary intelligence operations. Analytics is
the collection and processing of diverse
information to extract practical insights about
possible threats and adversary actions.

Experts and practitioners in Nigeria provide a wide
range of viewpoints on the significance and use of
SIGINT for the advancement of national security.
Professor Femi Amao (2023), a prominent expert
in the field of cybersecurity asserts that, the
significance of SIGINT in the fight against terrorism
and organized crime lies in its ability to monitor
and disrupt communication networks. Lieutenant
General Babagana Monguno (retd.) (2022), the
former National Security Adviser, emphasizes the

wider role of SIGINT in comprehending the intents
and capabilities of enemies, hence facilitating pre-
emptive actions to protect national interests.

In The significance of SIGINT in bolstering military
operations, counter-terrorism activities, and
national security initiatives is highlighted by the
Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA) (2024). Michael
Ejiofor (2020), a former Director of the
Department of Security and Intelligence (DSS),
emphasizes the use of this technology in
counterintelligence operations, including in the
identification and neutralization of foreign spies
and operatives. Brigadier General Sani Usman
(2021) highlights the operational importance of
SIGINT in military operations, as it facilitates the
gathering of intelligence on enemy movements,
assessment of threats, and formulation of tactical
decisions.

Dr. Kemi Okenyodo (2024), a cybersecurity expert
at the NCC, emphasizes the increasing significance
of Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) in safeguarding
vital infrastructure and national security in the era
of digital technology. She highlights the
significance of its function in detecting and
reducing cyberattacks and protecting highly
confidential data.

2.2.3 Electronic Intelligence (ELINT)

Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) is a specialised
branch of Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) that
investigates electronic signals that aren't used for
contact, like radar and weapon system emissions
(Johnson, 2018). The goal is to learn more about
the features and how foreign organisations use
computer systems (Smith et al., 2021). This
information is very important for improving
military tactics, strategic planning, and making
choices at the national and regional levels (Brown,
2020).

Scholars and security experts from Africa stress
how important ELINT is to the safety of the area

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(Adetula, 2020). They stress how important it is to
understand the electronic systems of other
countries to improve military operations, strategy
planning, and decision-making at the national and
regional levels (Olaniyan & Yahaya, 2022). Experts
also stress how important it is to include ELINT in
national security plans, deal with security issues in
the area, and encourage cooperation in
maintaining peace and safety (Onuoha, 2019).

As technology changes all the time in ELINT, new
ideas and ways of doing things need to be
constantly tested and improved to make sure they
work (Kumar, 2023).

2.2.4. Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT)

Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT) is the
methodical gathering and examination of publicly
accessible information (Petherick, 2023). Within
several fields such as national security, corporate
intelligence, and law enforcement, it possesses
considerable importance (Lazaridou-Chatzigoga et
al., 2021). Accredited experts globally highlight the
significance of this methodology in tackling a
diverse range of problems, including combating
terrorism and extremism, examining social and
political patterns, and improving situational
awareness in different security situations (Racz,
2022).

Open-Source

Intelligence

(OSINT)

is

acknowledged as an essential element of Nigeria's
national security architecture (Adetula, 2020). By
providing vital insights into the intents and
capabilities of adversaries, this technology allows
for proactive measures to minimise risks and
protect national interests (Olaniyan & Yahaya,
2022). Strategically, Open-Source Intelligence
(OSINT) emphasises its impact on the
development of national security policies and
decision-making procedures (Onuoha, 2019).

2.2.5. Social Media Intelligence (SOCMINT)

The acquisition and analysis of data obtained from
social media platforms are the primary objectives
of Social Media Intelligence (SOCMINT), a subset of
OSINT (Apuke & Tunca, 2023). It analyses user-
generated content, interactions, and trends to
acquire insights into public sentiment, emergent
concerns, and influential individuals or groups
(Osisanwo et al., 2021). The widespread use of
social media platforms for communication and
information dissemination is the primary reason
for the emergence of SOCMINT (Omoniyi &
Adewumi, 2022).

Sophisticated analytics and machine learning
techniques are employed to manage, capture, and
analyse social media data (Chatfield et al., 2019).
SOCMINT is employed in a variety of domains, such
as crisis management, brand and reputation
management, political and geopolitical analysis,
counterterrorism, and law enforcement (Apuke &
Tunca, 2023).

Although SOCMINT offers valuable insights, it also
presents challenges related to the complexity of
analysing enormous social media datasets, data
privacy, and ethics (Osisanwo et al., 2021). It is
imperative to comply with legal and ethical
standards and implement rigorous verification and
validation procedures on these platforms, given
the

prevalence

of

misinformation

and

disinformation (Brennan et al., 2020).

2.2.6. Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT)

Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT) refers to the
systematic

gathering,

examination,

and

representation of data that is indexed by
geographical coordinates to facilitate intelligence
operations (Olaniyan & Yahaya, 2022). The
method employs satellite photos, maps, and GIS
technologies to detect geographical patterns and
correlations (Olaniyan, 2021). Geospatial

Intelligence (GEOINT) has wide-ranging uses in
several domains such as security, disaster

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management,

urban

development,

and

environmental surveillance (Adetula, 2020).

Experts highlight several applications of GEOINT,
including providing information for national
security and defence strategy, improving
situational awareness and decision-making in
disaster response, and aiding humanitarian aid
operations

(Onuoha,

2019).

Analysing

geographical patterns and linkages using
geospatial methods is essential for enhancing
strategic decision-making and offering significant
insights for transdisciplinary initiatives (Osisanwo
et al., 2021).

Geographic Information and Intelligence (GEINT)
in Nigeria is customised to tackle local
requirements and difficulties (Apuke & Tunca,
2023). Through the identification of adversaries'
strengths and weaknesses, the analysis of spatial
patterns and relationships within the African
environment serves to improve defence and
regional security (Omoniyi & Adewumi, 2022).
Furthermore, it facilitates peacekeeping and
strengthens security collaboration endeavours
(Onuoha, 2019). Furthermore, GEOINT serves the
purpose of overseeing and mitigating non-state
entities and regional hostilities, so enhancing
military and strategic decision-making (Olaniyan &
Yahaya, 2022).

An in-depth examination of several intelligence
domains

—

HUMINT, SIGINT, ELINT, OSINT,

SOCMINT, and GEOINT

—

reveals their distinct

features and changing functions in tackling
modern security issues (Gill & Mathur, 2023).

Given the continuous progress in technology and
the rise of novel security risks, the importance of
these intelligence tasks is expected to increase
(Racz, 2022).

2.3 Theoretical Framework- The Network
Theory (TNT)

Systematic Network Theory and Nigerian
Intelligence Gathering

Network Theory, which studies the relationships
between people and organizations in a network,
can help Nigeria improve its intelligence collection
and use. Network Theory helps increase
situational awareness and strategic decision-
making by assessing danger actors, security
agencies, and local population linkages.

The Network Theory can identify and analyse
complex relationships, which is important in
Nigeria's security situation. The Network Theory
helps intelligence agencies understand the
relationships between terrorists, organized crime
syndicates, and cyber criminals. This data
highlights key people, facilitators, and operational
hubs that can destabilize the network (Sageman,
2021; Onuoha, 2019). Additionally, network
theory can be used to investigate Nigerian security
service links. Analysing collaboration and
communication networks can reveal intelligence
architecture flaws (Olaniyan & Yahaya, 2022).
Improving these networks can improve security
response by improving coordination and
intelligence exchange.

Success requires local expertise and community
engagement in intelligence operations (Albert,
2021). The Network Theory may show how local
actors and security agencies are connected,
highlighting the potential of community networks
to gather information and increase situational
awareness. Indigenous knowledge and community
contributions to security challenges are valued in
this approach.

The Network Theory emphasizes information
transmission inside a network, which is essential
for intelligence operations decision-making.
Analysing intelligence network information flow
reveals bottlenecks and inefficiencies. This
delivers critical data to the right nodes quickly

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(Treverton, 2021). Security organizations can
respond faster and more effectively to new threats.

Prior studies have noted that policymakers and
security agencies pay insufficient attention to
intelligence applications (Olaniyan & Yahaya,
2022). Network Theory can help address this issue.
Mapping can explain how intelligence flows from
data sources to decision-makers and how it affects
policies and actions. This can improve intelligence
applications to proactive and preventive actions,
improving security operations.

A comprehensive analytical framework is needed
to understand non-traditional risks such as
organised crime, cybercrime, and environmental
degradation (Adetula & Adeoye, 2021). Network
Theory helps understand these risks by mapping
entity relationships and identifying critical
network locations. This helps create targeted
strategies to deconstruct criminal networks and
reduce their power.

TNT in intelligence collecting has ethical and legal
issues (Onuoha, 2023). Analysis of intelligence
network linkages and power dynamics using
Network Theory. This research can discover key
oversight and accountability nodes. Doing so
strengthens monitoring and assures ethical and
legal intelligence activities (Heuer, 2020).
Visualizing the intelligence network can also help
identify human rights breaches. This allows for
strategies to mitigate risks and defend human
rights (Borgatti et al., 2013).

TNT allows comparisons of national security
issues. By using this paradigm to evaluate
intelligence networks in different situations,
researchers can identify effective methods and
tactics, leading to more efficient intelligence
procedures in Nigeria (Freeman, 1978). Nigeria's
intelligence architecture can benefit from studying
other nations' intelligence networks and strategies
(Watts & Strogatz, 1998).

Network Theory improves Nigerian intelligence
collection and use flexibly. Examining intelligence
network connections and exchanges reveals key
players, information dissemination patterns, and
flaws. This knowledge can be utilized to build
security solutions for terrorism, organized crime,
cybercrime, and environmental damage. Network
Theory can also help address ethical and legal
challenges,

promote

accountability

and

supervision, and enable comparative study to learn
from best practices in other environments.

2.3.1 Historical Overview of Intelligence in
Nigeria

Throughout history, intelligence has been an
essential instrument for rulers, states, and empires
in upholding territorial integrity, settling internal
disputes, and guaranteeing stability. Intelligence
operations have played a crucial role in
government and security spanning from ancient
civilizations to contemporary nation-states.
Throughout pre-colonial Africa, a range of
espionage and surveillance methods were used to
safeguard communities, defend regions, and
monitor opponents.

Intelligence gathering in Nigeria, characterized by
its heterogeneous ethnic groupings and abundant
cultural legacy, extensively depended on informal
networks. Pre-colonial kingdoms and empires
employed scouts, spies, and informants to collect
intelligence on competing powers, conduct
surveillance on internal opposition, and prepare
for military operations. The establishment of these
intelligence networks frequently occurred via
alliances, trade partnerships, and social networks
(Falola & Heaton, 2022).

The emergence of European colonisation
throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries
introduced a more organised and systematic
method of collecting intelligence in Nigeria. To
exert control over its extensive African domains,

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the British colonial authorities developed
intelligence networks to monitor political activity,
quelling uprisings, and acquiring information on
local leaders and movements that potentially
endangered colonial authority. The efficacy of this
intelligence strategy allowed the British to retain
dominion

over

Nigeria

notwithstanding

opposition from many indigenous factions
(Adebayo, 2023).

Throughout the colonial period, intelligence
activities in Nigeria were predominantly
motivated by the imperative to safeguard British
economic and political interests. The British
depended on a network of indigenous informants,
colonial law enforcement, and military intelligence
personnel to collect intelligence on nationalist
groups, occupational strikes, and other actions that
had the potential to weaken colonial power. During
the 1940s, the colonial authority founded the
Nigerian Security Organisation (NSO), which
served as a forerunner to contemporary Nigerian
intelligence organizations. Its primary objective
was to collect intelligence on political actions and
quell anti- colonial movements (Agbiboa, 2020).

Nevertheless, colonial intelligence activities were
not exempt from these constraints. An inherent
deficiency in the British intelligence machinery in
Nigeria was their limited comprehension of the
intricate political dynamics, languages, and
cultures of the region. Occasionally, this lack of
cultural understanding resulted in intelligence
failures and misjudgements, intensifying conflicts
between the colonial administration and
indigenous populations (Smith, 2021).

2.3.2 Organisational Structure of Intelligence in
Nigeria After Independence

Upon Nigeria's attainment of independence in
1960, the newly formed nation assumed
responsibility for the colonial intelligence
infrastructure.

Nevertheless,

the

Nigerian

government acknowledged the necessity of
overhauling and strengthening its intelligence
capabilities to tackle the distinct obstacles faced by
a sovereign state.

During the initial stages of independence, Nigeria's
intelligence apparatus was somewhat basic, with
the Nigerian Police Force mostly tasked with
collecting intelligence. Nevertheless, as a reaction
to the increasing internal and external security
dilemmas, the nation developed dedicated
intelligence agencies.

Within the military administration of General
Ibrahim Babangida in 1986, the National Security
Organization (NSO) underwent a restructuring
process that resulted in the establishment of three
separate intelligence agencies: the State Security
Service (SSS), which is currently referred to as the
Department of State Services (DSS), the National
Intelligence Agency (NIA), and the Defence
Intelligence Agency (DIA). The restructuring was a
notable achievement in the development of
Nigeria's intelligence sector since it facilitated
enhanced collaboration and specialization among
the agencies in charge of internal security, foreign
intelligence, and military intelligence (Akinyemi,
2020).

The Department of State Security (DSS) is
responsible for conducting domestic intelligence
and counterintelligence activities, with a specific
emphasis on internal security that encompasses
counterterrorism,

counterinsurgency,

and

safeguarding vital government infrastructure and
personnel. According to Alao (2021), the DSS
assumes a pivotal function in the collection of
intelligence about political activities, organized
crime, and other jeopardies to national security.

The NIA's primary obligations include gathering
foreign

intelligence

and

conducting

counterespionage operations. The agency analyses
global events that could affect Nigeria's national

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security,

collects

intelligence

on

other

governments and organisations, and carries out
clandestine activities overseas. The NIA engages in
cooperative efforts with other international
intelligence organizations to effectively tackle
transnational security challenges (Obasi, 2022).

The DIA serves as a source of intelligence
assistance to the Nigerian Armed Forces, with a
specific emphasis on military intelligence. The
system engages in reconnaissance, collects data on
possible military risks, and produces intelligence
analysis to bolster military planning and
operations. The DIA plays a crucial role in Nigeria's
counterinsurgency

operations,

namely

in

combating Boko Haram and other armed criminal
organisations (Olabanji & Omitola, 2023).

Notwithstanding the creation of these specialised
agencies, Nigeria's intelligence system after
gaining independence has encountered numerous
obstacles. An issue of significant concern has been
the absence of effective coordination and
communication among the several agencies. The
lack of extensive intelligence exchange across the
DSS, NIA, and DIA has frequently led to deficiencies
in intelligence coverage and delays in addressing
security risks. Furthermore, the Nigerian
intelligence community has faced criticism for its
tendency to politicize, as intelligence services have
been accused of aligning themselves with political
elites rather than prioritizing national security
(Adebayo, 2021).

2.3.3 Role of Intelligence in National Security

Counter-terrorism and Prevention.

The gathering, analysis, and distribution of
intelligence to prevent and defeat acts of terrorism
are essential components of counterterrorism, a
fundamental aspect of national security strategy
worldwide. To comprehend, disrupt, and
dismantle terrorist networks, intelligence is of
paramount importance.

Counterterrorism intelligence is obtained from a
wide range of sources, each providing distinct and
useful perspectives on the battle against terrorism.
Human intelligence (HUMINT) refers to the
gathering of information from human sources,
including informants and undercover agents, to get
direct understanding of the tactics, operations, and
internal workings of terrorist organisations
(Byman, 2021). Signal intelligence (SIGINT) is the
interception

and

analysis

of

electronic

communications, which allows for the surveillance
of terrorist communications and the detection of
possible threats (Treverton, 2021). Sophisticated
machine learning algorithms have significantly
improved the capacity to analyze large volumes of
intercepted communications, identify patterns,
and predict possible terrorist activities (Buchanan
& Kehoe, 2021). Geographical intelligence
(GEOINT) is the systematic gathering and
examination of visual representations and spatial
data, which offers immediate and accurate
information regarding the movements and
whereabouts of terrorist networks. Critical for
strategizing counterterrorism operations and
monitoring terrorist activities, this intelligence is
indispensable (Sageman, 2021; Bergen, 2021).
Synergistically utilizing various intelligence
sources promotes a thorough comprehension of
the danger environment and enables focused
interventions.

Intelligence Analysis: From Threat Assessment to
Network Mapping

Intelligence analysis converts unprocessed data
into

executable

intelligence,

crucial

in

counterterrorism endeavours. Threat assessment,
an essential component of intelligence analysis, is
the evaluation of the possible dangers presented
by terrorist groups and the comprehension of their
capacities and objectives (Clarke & Newman,
2020). Consequently, intelligence agencies can
give priority to safeguarding high-value targets,

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such as vital infrastructure and public areas, and
efficiently distribute resources. The utilization of
historical data and current intelligence in
predictive analysis approaches enables the
anticipation of prospective terrorist attacks,
therefore

promoting

pre-emptive

countermeasures and improved readiness (Enders
& Sandler, 2020). Network analysis is a crucial
method for comprehending the structure and
identifying fundamental personnel, including
leaders, funders, and operatives, within terrorist
groups by examining their relationships and
interactions (Sageman, 2021). In addition,
network analysis can reveal vital support
networks for terrorist operations, such as funding,
recruitment, and logistics, allowing for focused
measures to undermine their capacities (Felbab-
Brown, 2021).

Intelligence Sharing and Dissemination:

Seamless intelligence sharing among different
intelligence organizations and partner states is
crucial for effective counterterrorism. Inter-
agency cooperation enables the prompt and
effective sharing of information, promoting a
comprehensive vision of terrorism risks
(Buchanan & Kehoe, 2021). Effective international
collaboration, achieved by the exchange of
intelligence and synchronized counterterrorism
operations, is essential in addressing transnational
terrorist risks and overseeing their actions that
extend beyond national borders (Sageman, 2021).
Accurate and prompt distribution of intelligence to
policymakers is similarly crucial, as it furnishes
vital information for formulating counterterrorism
programs and making well-informed decisions.
Systematic briefings and reports, which emphasize
the present state of threats and possible hazards,
guide the development of national security
strategies and the distribution of resources
(Treverton,

2021).

Empowering

security

personnel with precise and actionable intelligence

on impending threats, particular targets, and
possible attack techniques enables them to
respond with effectiveness and decisiveness
(Fingar, 2021).

2.3.4 The Role of Intelligence in Combating
Insurgency Case Studies:

The national security environment of Nigeria has
been influenced by a succession of intricate and
dynamic security challenges during the last twenty
years. The collection of intelligence has become a
vital instrument in addressing these problems, yet
flexible approaches and efficient collaboration
across security agencies continue to be essential.
Three significant security challenges in Nigeria are
analysed in this paper: the Boko Haram
insurgency, abduction and banditry, and cyber
threats. Every individual case study highlights the
essential and irreplaceable function of intelligence
in tackling matters of national security.

Boko Haram Insurgency

The Boko Haram insurgency, formally referred to

as Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati wal

-Jihad

(JAS), is a very consequential and prolonged
security issue in Nigeria. Emerging in 2002 in
northern Nigeria as a radical Islamist group, Boko
Haram's resistance to Western education and
support for an Islamic state propelled it to evolve
into a violent insurgency under the leadership of
Abubakar Shekau in 2009 (Zenn, 2020). The group
employs a variety of strategies involving acts of
violence, such as suicide bombings, large-scale
abductions, killings, and assaults on both military
and civilian targets.

The notorious 2014 kidnapping of more than 276
schoolgirls from Chibok intensified Boko Haram's
reputation, attracting worldwide scrutiny to the
insurgency and underscoring the Nigerian
government's difficulties in controlling the group.
Despite active military operations, Boko Haram
continues to exist in northeastern Nigeria and the

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surrounding countries (Onuoha, 2021).

Security intelligence has played a crucial role in
Nigeria's counterterrorism operations. The
effective monitoring and neutralisation of Boko
Haram's leadership has been made possible by
collaboration with international allies. The
intelligence gathered in 2016 resulted in the
apprehension and subsequent removal of Abu
Musab Al-Barnawi, the former deputy commander
and originator of the ISWAP extremist
organisation. According to Agbiboa (2021), the use
of local information and surveillance enabled the
successful execution of operations against Boko
Haram, leading to the apprehension or demise of
numerous senior members.

Persistent issues include untimely intelligence
sharing and insufficient use of local intelligence, as
seen by the attacks on villages in Borno State when
security personnel arrived late because of delayed
intelligence (Akinola, 2022). Permeable borders
exacerbate the complexity of intelligence
operations.

Although foreign intelligence and collaboration,
especially from the US, France, and the UK, have
strengthened Nigeria's capacities, continuous
efforts in developing local intelligence networks
and improving coordination across national and
regional forces are required for long-term success
(Alli, 2022).

Kidnapping and Banditry

The incidence of kidnapping and banditry has
significantly increased in northern and central
Nigeria, mostly motivated by economic incentives
and ethnic tensions. The business of kidnapping
for ransom has generated significant profits since
populations are being kept captive and the ransom
demands continue to climb. According to Okoli and
Ugwu (2021), there were more than 2,200
instances of kidnapping and 5,000 cases of
abduction documented in 2020.

Banditry, associated with ethnic unrest, land
conflicts, and theft of livestock, instils fear in rural
communities

in

the

northwest.

Militant

organizations

operate

without

facing

consequences

in

extensive,

uncontrolled

territories, therefore restricting the effectiveness
of security forces.

Effective intelligence-led operations have resulted
in notable achievements, such as the successful
rescue of more than 300 schoolboys in Kankara in
2021, underscoring the significance of local
intelligence (Amnesty International, 2021).
Nevertheless, obstacles persist.

Insufficient confidence between communities and
security forces, together with corruption within
the security sector, obstructs intelligence
operations. Due to communities' fear of retaliation
or lack of confidence in the government's security,
the availability of actionable intelligence is
restricted (Okoli & Ugwu, 2021). Corrupt security
officers collaborating with criminals exacerbates
operational weaknesses and diminishes public
trust (Agbiboa, 2021).

The implementation of government programs such
as community policing and drone technology has
logistical and operational challenges. Effectively
combating kidnapping and banditry necessitates
allocating resources to enhance local intelligence
skills, cultivating trust, and tackling socio-
economic incentives that contribute to criminal
behaviour.

Cyber Threats

The growing digital interconnection in Nigeria has
resulted in a significant rise in cyber risks.
Frequent and sophisticated cyberattacks that
target government organizations, financial
systems, and key infrastructure result in financial
losses and present security threats. According to

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PwC Nigeria (2021), Nigeria encountered more
than 3,500 cyberattacks in the year 2020, leading
to financial damages of over $500 million.

The main forces behind cybercrime encompass the
widespread adoption of digital devices, the
increased availability of internet connectivity, and
the expansion of online financial activities. The
activities of cyber criminals encompass phishing,
ransomware attacks, identity theft, and online
fraud, therefore exerting adverse effects on
individuals, enterprises, and national security.

The creation of the Nigerian Cybersecurity
Coordination Centre (NCCC) in 2021 indicates the
government's acknowledgement of the necessity
to strengthen cyber intelligence capacities.
According to PwC Nigeria (2021), the NCCC
effectively organizes activities, engages in global
collaboration, and actively monitors potential risks
in real time.

Cutting-edge technology such as artificial
intelligence, machine learning, and big data
analytics assist in the identification and
examination of cyber threats. Artificial intelligence
(AI) technologies surveil social media platforms to
detect radicalisation and possible acts of violence
(Olumide, 2022).

Long-standing obstacles include a dearth of
proficient cybersecurity experts and insufficient
laws and enforcement of cybersecurity. The
disparity in skills hampers operational efficiency,
while

inconsistent

implementation

and

insufficient public awareness expose Nigeria to
vulnerability (PwC Nigeria, 2021; Olumide, 2022).

International collaboration, facilitated by alliances
with INTERPOL and UNODC, enhances Nigeria's
cyber intelligence capacities and enables
synchronised actions against transnational
cybercrime (Alli, 2022).

2.3.5 Challenges in Intelligence Gathering

Strategic cooperation among intelligence agencies
and smooth synchronization with law enforcement
are of utmost importance for safeguarding national
security.

Nevertheless,

numerous

barriers

frequently obstruct this vital collaboration,
impeding the efficiency and efficacy of intelligence
operations. This academic analysis examines the
coordination and infrastructural issues, reviewing
their significant consequences and possible
solutions, based on up-to-date research and
insights.

Inter-Agency Rivalry

The presence of inter-agency rivalry, driven by the
battle for few resources and a lack of trust, is a
substantial obstacle to achieving efficient
coordination. The prioritization of individual
interests by agencies over common goals might
result in inefficiencies and duplicative activities
(Johnson, 2021). Intense competition for financial,
human, and technological resources might impede
cooperation, as agencies aim to amass resources to
improve their position (Treverton, 2021).
Furthermore, apprehensions about the security of
data and the possibility of its abuse can contribute
to hesitancy in sharing information, therefore
hindering the collaborative intelligence endeavour
(Fingar, 2021).

Communication Barriers

Timely and efficient communication is crucial for
intelligence operations, yet obstacles in
communication might impede collaboration
between different agencies. Potential delays,
inefficiencies, and missed opportunities might
arise from technological

incompatibilities,

cybersecurity issues, and bureaucratic procedures
(Johnson, 2021; Holt et al., 2021). Elaborate
bureaucratic processes and inflexible hierarchical
systems can additionally hinder the transmission
of knowledge, so impacting the promptness and
pertinence of intelligence (Treverton, 2021; Clarke

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& Newman, 2020).

Jurisdictional Issues

In intelligence operations, the presence of
overlapping jurisdictions among agencies can lead
to misunderstandings and disagreements about
responsibilities and authority. Legal disputes
about jurisdiction can result in redundant work,
squandered resources, and a lack of unified
strategy (Buchanan & Kehoe, 2021). Divergences
in legal frameworks and laws among different
jurisdictions might impede the exchange of
information and cooperation, especially in the
context of foreign intelligence assistance (Holt et
al., 2021).

Differences in Organizational Culture

Organizational culture, which includes values,
attitudes, and practices, has a substantial influence
on

inter-agency

collaboration.

Divergent

operational ideologies, intelligence approaches,
and professional competitions can generate
friction and hinder efficient coordination (Johnson,
2021; Clarke & Newman, 2020). In certain cases,
the presence of strong agency loyalty and
individual career aspirations can overshadow the
collaborative intelligence endeavour, resulting in
less-than-

optimal

decision-making

and

diminished operational efficiency (Buchanan &
Kehoe, 2021; Fingar, 2021).

Challenges in infrastructure

Infrastructural constraints present intelligence
agencies with significant obstacles. Resource
constraints, especially in emerging countries, limit
the extent of intelligence activities and hinder the
procurement of cutting-edge technology and the
training and development of staff (Ekekwe, 2023;
Johnson, 2021; Treverton, 2021). Deploying
obsolete equipment can undermine situational
awareness and data accuracy, while insufficient
data analysis tools might impede the recognition of

trends and well-informed decision-making.
Furthermore, the lack of adequate technology
presents cybersecurity threats, therefore exposing
intelligence systems to potential compromises
(Clarke & Newman, 2020; Treverton, 2021; Holt et
al., 2021).

Technological Advancements and Challenges

The exponential rate of technical progress offers
intelligence organizations both prospects and
obstacles. Although technology can improve data
gathering, analysis, and operational capacities, it
also brings about complicating factors. Intelligence
agencies must confront the imperative to
consistently adjust to emerging technology,
minimize cyber risks, handle extensive volumes of
data, and uphold continuous training and
adaptation.

The ongoing advancement of technology imposes a
financial strain on agencies, necessitating
significant capital outlays in research and
development as well as upgrades to maintain a
competitive edge over opponents (Betts, 2020;
Johnson, 2021; Fingar, 2021). The growing
dependence on digital technology significantly
amplifies the vulnerability to cyberattacks, thereby
requiring strong cybersecurity protocols (Holt et
al., 2021; Clarke & Newman, 2020).

The rapid and exponential increase in data poses
difficulties in efficiently managing and analysing it.
Robust data analytics and artificial intelligence are
essential for the analysis and extraction of
meaningful insights from extensive databases
(Treverton, 2021). Integration of data from
various sources and formats necessitates
advanced

technology

and

interoperability

standards (Fingar, 2021).

Moreover, intelligence personnel must participate
in ongoing training and skill enhancement to
remain up to date with technological progress. The
recruitment and retention of professionals

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possessing technical expertise in cybersecurity,
artificial intelligence (AI), and data analytics are of
paramount importance (Buchanan & Kehoe, 2021;
Holt et al., 2021). Equally crucial is organizational
adaptability, which necessitates the modification
of conventional hierarchical frameworks to
promote agility and innovation (Treverton, 2021).

2.3.6 Critical

Assessment

of

Intelligence

Gathering Efforts in Nigeria

The collection of intelligence is essential for
safeguarding national security, as it contributes to
the development and execution of effective
policies.

Notwithstanding

the

significant

achievements of Nigerian intelligence agencies in
combating terrorism, their overall efficacy is
nevertheless hindered by various obstacles. Major
intelligence-led successes in the battle against
Boko Haram and ISWAP include the apprehension
of senior commanders (Zenn, 2021). Yet,
development has been impeded by inter-agency
competition, delayed information exchange
(Onuoha, 2021), and insufficient community
involvement. Tackling kidnapping and banditry
presents similar challenges owing to permeable
borders, extensive unregulated areas, and
corruption among security personnel (Okoli &
Ugwu, 2021; Agbiboa, 2021). Although significant
progress has been achieved in enhancing cyber
intelligence capabilities, the efficacy of programs
such as the NCCC is hindered by limited resources
and a dearth of comprehensive cybersecurity
legislation (PwC Nigeria, 2021).

The national security strategy of Nigeria is subject
to substantial influence from intelligence, which
plays

a

crucial

role

in

establishing

counterterrorism

policies

and

regional

cooperation (Onuoha, 2021; Alli, 2022). Yet,
obstacles remain, such as the politicization of
intelligence (Adebayo, 2021; Akinola, 2022) and
the insufficient incorporation of intelligence into

the formulation of long-term policies (Obasi,
2022). Despite the NCPS's advancements in
cybersecurity, its execution is hindered by
resource constraints and a dearth of public
knowledge (PwC Nigeria, 2021; Olumide, 2022).

Public perception and trust are of paramount
importance for intelligence services. Perceptions
of ineffectiveness in averting assaults, together
with concerns about transparency, accountability,
and

human

rights

violations

(Amnesty

International, 2021), have undermined public
confidence. Community involvement initiatives
aimed at rebuilding trust have shown some results,
especially in regions afflicted by banditry and
insurgency (Okoli & Ugwu, 2021). Although the
public views cyber intelligence in a more
favourable light, there is still a need for increased
public knowledge and education on cybersecurity
(Olumide, 2022).

An evaluation of Nigeria's intelligence activities in
comparison to international standards might
provide invaluable insights for improving its
intelligence infrastructure. An analysis of effective
strategies and approaches used by countries such
as the United States, Israel, and the United
Kingdom can reveal possible areas for
enhancement in Nigeria's intelligence architecture.

Global Best Practices in Intelligence Gathering

Organizational

Structure

and

Interagency

Coordination

A well-organized structure that fosters effective
interagency coordination is a hallmark of
successful intelligence operations globally. The
United States, for example, employs a
decentralized intelligence system comprising
multiple agencies, including the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA), Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI), National Security Agency
(NSA), and the Department of Homeland Security
(DHS) (Lowenthal, 2022). These agencies

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collaborate under the auspices of the Office of the
Director of National Intelligence (ODNI), ensuring
intelligence sharing and integration across various
domains.

Similarly, the United Kingdom's intelligence
apparatus, comprising MI5 (domestic security),
MI6 (foreign intelligence), and GCHQ (signals
intelligence), operates under the coordination of
the Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC), ensuring the
synthesis and timely dissemination of intelligence
to decision-makers (Johnson, 2020).

Israel's intelligence community is also recognized
for its high degree of coordination and integration.
Mossad (foreign intelligence), Shin Bet (domestic
security), and Aman (military intelligence) work in
close collaboration, prioritizing the prevention and
pre-emption of threats.

The Israeli model emphasizes rapid decision-
making and flexibility, proving instrumental in
countering terrorism and regional threats (Bar-
Joseph & McDermott, 2021).

In contrast, Nigeria's intelligence community faces
challenges in coordination and communication
between agencies. The Department of State
Services (DSS), National Intelligence Agency (NIA),
and Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA) often
operate in silos, with limited information sharing.
This lack of interagency coordination has hindered
effective threat response, as exemplified by the
failure to prevent the 2014 Chibok schoolgirls'
abduction despite prior intelligence (Agbiboa,
2021). Establishing a centralized div, akin to the
ODNI or JIC, could ameliorate coordination and
information sharing within Nigeria's intelligence
agencies.

Human Intelligence (HUMINT) and Community
Engagement

Human intelligence (HUMINT) remains invaluable,
especially where technology is limited, or local

context is crucial. The United States and Israel
effectively leverage HUMINT through extensive
informant and collaborator networks (Marrin,
2022; Bar-Joseph & McDermott, 2021). Israel's
deep intelligence networks within Palestinian
territories and neighbouring countries enable it to
pre-empt attacks through timely intelligence.

Nigeria faces challenges in utilizing HUMINT,
particularly in insurgency-affected regions.
Mistrust between communities and security
forces, coupled with difficulties in building
informant networks, hampers intelligence
gathering

(Akinyemi,

2022).

Enhancing

community engagement and trust is crucial for
improving Nigeria's HUMINT capabilities.

Technological Capabilities and Cyber Intelligence

Technological capabilities, especially in signals
intelligence (SIGINT) and cyber intelligence, are
critical in the digital age. The U.S. and UK lead in
this domain, with the NSA and GCHQ employing
advanced surveillance technologies and tools like
satellite imagery, data analytics, and AI
(Lowenthal, 2022). Israel's Unit 8200 excels in
cyber intelligence and electronic warfare, enabling
it to counter cyber threats and maintain a
technological advantage (Frenkel, 2022).

Nigeria lags in technological intelligence
capabilities. While efforts have been made to
enhance

cyber

intelligence

infrastructure,

limitations in resources, skilled personnel, and
infrastructure persist (PwC Nigeria, 2021).
Investing in advanced technologies, developing a
skilled workforce, and strengthening the legal
framework for cybersecurity are imperative for
Nigeria.

Counterterrorism Strategies

Counterterrorism heavily relies on intelligence
gathering. Global leaders like the U.S. and Israel
employ intelligence-driven strategies focusing on

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pre-emptive action, rapid response, and military-
intelligence coordination. The U.S. utilizes drones
for targeted killings and integrates intelligence
into military operations (Johnson, 2020). Israel
prioritizes pre-emptive strikes and targeted
operations, with intelligence agencies playing a
central role in identifying and neutralizing threats
(Bar-Joseph & McDermott, 2021).

Nigeria's counterterrorism efforts against Boko
Haram and ISWAP also depend on intelligence, but
their effectiveness is limited by challenges such as
slow response to intelligence warnings and lack of
coordination between intelligence and military
operations (Onuoha, 2021). Adopting best
practices

like

closer

intelligence-military

integration and prioritizing pre-emptive action
could enhance Nigeria's counterterrorism efforts.

Legal and Ethical Frameworks

Global best practices emphasize operating within a
clear legal and ethical framework. The U.S., UK, and
Israel have established legal frameworks
regulating intelligence operations, protecting civil
liberties, and ensuring accountability (Lowenthal,
2022; Johnson, 2020).

Nigeria faces challenges in establishing a robust
legal framework for intelligence. While laws exist,
enforcement is inconsistent, and oversight of
intelligence agencies is limited, leading to concerns
about

human

rights

abuses

(Amnesty

International, 2021). Strengthening legal oversight
and ensuring agencies operate within the law are
essential for building public trust.

METHODOLOGY

This study will employ a mixed-methods approach,
integrating quantitative data derived from a
questionnaire with qualitative insights gleaned
from an empirical literature review, to investigate
the multifaceted role of intelligence in
safeguarding Nigeria's national security. This

methodological triangulation aims to provide a
comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the
research questions and hypotheses, drawing upon
both empirical evidence and theoretical
frameworks.

3.1

Research Design

An explanatory sequential mixed-methods design
will be implemented. This design entails the initial
collection and analysis of quantitative data,
followed by the collection and analysis of
qualitative data to elucidate and contextualize the
quantitative findings. The quantitative phase will
offer a broad overview of the current state of
intelligence practices in Nigeria, while the
subsequent qualitative phase will delve deeper
into the underlying factors, processes, and
complexities.

3.2

Data Collection

Questionnaire: A structured questionnaire will be
meticulously developed to elicit data from a
diverse range of stakeholders engaged in national
security in Nigeria, including security experts,
intelligence officials, policymakers, and academics.
The questionnaire will incorporate both closed-
ended questions (e.g., Likert scale items) and open-
ended questions to capture a spectrum of
perspectives and experiences. To ensure a
representative sample, the questionnaire will be
administered both online and in-person.

Empirical Literature Review: A systematic review
of pertinent literature will be conducted to identify
and critically analyze existing research on
intelligence gathering, national security, and
counterterrorism in Nigeria, with a specific focus
on studies published between 2020 and 2024. The
review will encompass peer-reviewed journal
articles, books, government reports, and policy
documents.

3.3. Data Analysis

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Quantitative Data Analysis: Descriptive and
inferential statistics will be employed to analyze
the questionnaire data. Descriptive statistics will
be utilized to summarize the data, while inferential
statistics will be leveraged to test the hypotheses
and identify statistically significant relationships
between variables.

Integration of Findings

The findings emanating from the quantitative and
qualitative data analysis will be meticulously
integrated to provide a holistic and insightful
understanding of the research questions. The
qualitative data will serve to explicate and
contextualize the quantitative findings, thereby
yielding a richer and more nuanced interpretation.

3.4. Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations will be accorded paramount
importance throughout the research process.
Informed consent will be obtained from all
participants,

and

their

anonymity

and

confidentiality will be stringently safeguarded. The
research will adhere scrupulously to all relevant
ethical guidelines and regulations.

3.5. Limitations

The study may encounter certain limitations, such

as potential biases inherent in questionnaire
responses and the restricted availability of recent
and directly relevant literature on intelligence
practices in Nigeria. However, the utilization of a
mixed-methods approach and a rigorous research
design will serve to mitigate these limitations and
enhance the overall validity and reliability of the
findings.

RESULTS

4.1

SURVEY RESPONSE RATE

The questionnaire was the primary instrument
used for data collection in this study. An approved
questionnaire was shared with four hundred (400)
participants and distributed, but only three
hundred and ninety-eight (398) were partially
completed and returned. However, three hundred
and ninety-four (394) were fully completed,
making an impressive ninety-six per cent (96%)
return, indicating a prominent level of participant
engagement, forming the basis for our data
analysis. The response rate in this study exceeded
the threshold, strengthening the validity of the
findings made from the data. The figure as shown
visually represents the response rate for this
survey.

Table 4.1. Survey Response Rate

CHARACTERISTICS

RESPONSES

PERCENTAGE

Respondents

394

98.5%

Non-Respondents

6

1.5%

TOTAL

400

100%

Source:

Field data 2024

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Fig. 4.1 Response rate of survey

4.2

RESPOND

ENTS’ DEMOGRAPHICS

The participants’ demographics comprised gender,

current or past affiliation with a security agency,

years of experience in the security sector, highest
level of education, and primary role in the security
sector.

Table 4.1.2 Respondents gender

DEMOGRAPHICS

CHARACTERISTICS

RESPONSES

PERCENTAGE

GENDER

Male

304

77%

Female

90

23%

TOTAL

394

100%

Source:

Field data, 2024

Fig. 4.2 Response rate of survey

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4.3

Research Questions I How effectively have intelligence agencies gathered and utilized intelligence

in Nigeria

4.3 Table: Rating the effectiveness of the following intelligence-gathering methods in Nigeria

CHARACTERISTICS

VERY

POOR

NEUTRAL

GOOD

EXCELLENT

TOTAL

HUMINT

17

87

65

192

33

394

SIGINT

54

108

90

34

394

OSINT

15

40

110

180

49

394

GEOSINT

34

154

120

63

23

394

Source: Field data, 2024.

Fig. 4.3 Rating the effectiveness of the following intelligence-gathering methods in Nigeria

(2011- 2023).

Figure 4.3 reveals a heavy reliance on HUMINT and
OSINT in Nigeria, while underutilizing

GEOINT and neglecting MASINT. This reliance on
HUMINT and OSINT reflects their value in
understanding complex socio-political dynamics

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and leveraging the digital landscape,

respectively.

However,

it

also

exposes

vulnerabilities to biases, misinformation, and
resource- intensive collection efforts. The
underutilization of GEOINT and the absence of
MASINT

represent missed opportunities for enhancing
situational awareness, strategic planning, and
threat detection. To optimize intelligence

operations, Nigeria needs to diversify its
intelligence-

gathering

methods,

invest

in

advanced

technologies,

and

improve

inter-agency

coordination.

4.4. Research Question 2: How do Nigeria's
intelligence agencies interface and collaborate
with other national and international security
organizations to combat security threats?

4.4 Table How would you rate trust and cooperation between your agency/department and

other security agencies?

CHARACTERISTICS

RESPONSE

PERCENTAGE

Very Low

15

4%

Low

145

37%

Neutral

130

33%

High

84

21%

Very High

20

5%

Total

100

100%

Source: Field data 2024.

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Fig. 4.4

The data displayed in Table 4.4, on the perceived
degree of trust and collaboration between Nigerian
intelligence services and other security groups,
portrays a worrisome scenario. A substantial
proportion of participants (37%) assess this level
of trust and collaboration as "Low," whilst a mere
26% regard it as "High" or "Very High." These
findings indicate that although there is a certain
degree of cooperation, there is still significant
potential for enhancing the development of a
genuinely unified and efficient intelligence
community.

The suboptimal degree of trust and collaboration
may be attributed to several things. As previously
mentioned, the presence of inter-agency
competition, divergent organizational cultures,
and uncertainties in jurisdiction might hinder
successful collaboration. Moreover, the presence
of long- standing distrust and a perceived absence

of openness could add complexity to the endeavors
of strengthening collaborative partnerships among
agencies.

These discoveries have substantial ramifications.
Insufficient trust and collaboration can result in
deficiencies in intelligence, delays in the exchange
of information, and overlooked chances to
adequately tackle security risks. Within a nation
grappling with intricate and ever-changing
security issues such as Nigeria, it is of utmost
importance to establish smooth cooperation
between intelligence agencies and other security
groups.

Research Question 3: What main challenges do
intelligence agencies in Nigeria face?

4.5. What are your agency/department's primary
challenges in gathering and utilizing intelligence
effectively?

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4.5 Table What are your agency/department's primary challenges in gathering and utilizing

intelligence effectively?

CHARACTERISTICS

RESPONSE

PERCENTAGE

Inadequate funding

264

67.1%

Lack of training and expertise

238

60.5%

Technological limitations

254

64.5%

Inter-Agency rivalry and coordination

233

59.2%

Legal and bureaucratic Control

124

31.6%

Corruption and Unethical practices

218

55.3%

Others

10

2.6%

Source: Field data 2024.

Fig. 4.5 Agency/department's primary challenges in gathering and utilizing intelligence
effectively.

An analysis of empirical data in Fig. 4.3 above
shows an intricate interaction of obstacles that
impede the efficiency of Nigerian intelligence

agencies. Insufficient financial resources (67.1%)
greatly limit their capability to get sophisticated
technology, invest in human resources, and carry

Legal and bureaucratic Control

funding

0

50

100

150

RESPONSE

200

250

300

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out efficient operations, therefore hindering their
ability to compete with changing threats.
Moreover, a deficiency in sufficient training and
skill (60.5%) impedes their capacity to tackle the
ever-changing security environment, marked by
cyber threats, advanced terrorist strategies, and
international

illicit

activities.

Moreover,

technological constraints (64.5%) present a
substantial barrier, as agencies face difficulties in
obtaining and sustaining the essential tools and
infrastructure for surveillance, data analysis, and
cyber operations in a time of sophisticated
technology. Moreover, the prevalence of inter-
agency rivalry and coordination issues (59.2%)
leads to inefficiencies and missed opportunities
because of inadequate collaboration and

information exchange between security and
intelligence services. Although less often
mentioned, legal and bureaucratic limitations
(31.6%) and corruption and unethical behaviours
(55.3%) also present substantial barriers,
impeding agility, responsiveness, and public
confidence. The complex nature of these issues
highlights the immediate requirement for a
thorough and careful strategy to bolster
intelligence capabilities and improve national
security in Nigeria.

4.6

Research Questions 4: What impact have

intelligence operations had on national security
outcomes?

4.6 Table: To what extent has intelligence gathering contributed to Nigeria's following national

security outcomes (2011-2023)? (Scale of 1 - Not at all to 5 - Very significant)

CHARACTERISTICS

Not at all

Slightly

Significant

Moderately

Significant

Very

Significant

Extremely

Significant

TOTAL

Prevention of terrorist

attacks

21

174

132

47

20

394

Disruption of criminal

networks

48

170

128

31

17

394

Mitigation of

communal
conflicts

47

158

122

41

26

394

Protection of critical

infrastructure

53

137

121

48

35

394

Others

27

16

37

16

-

Source: Field data 2024.

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Fig. 4.6 The extent to which intelligence gathering contributed to Nigeria's following national

security outcomes

The data in Figure 4.4.1 reveals a nuanced impact
of intelligence activities on Nigeria's national
security. While intelligence is perceived as highly
effective in safeguarding critical infrastructure, its
influence on preventing terrorist attacks,
disrupting criminal networks, and mitigating
community conflicts is viewed as moderate. This
suggests that while intelligence plays a supportive
role, its impact is contingent upon factors like
timely analysis, inter-agency collaboration, and
addressing root causes of conflicts. The
underutilization of GEOINT and MASINT further
highlights areas for improvement. Overall, the
findings emphasize the need for a multifaceted
approach to intelligence gathering and analysis,
encompassing

technological

advancements,

improved coordination, and a focus on addressing
the diverse challenges facing Nigeria's national
security.

DISCUSSION

The study's findings provide a comprehensive

view of the intricacies and challenges that exist
within Nigeria's intelligence ecosystem. The
survey results, combined with findings from the
literature analysis, reveal both the strengths and
flaws of the nation's intelligence infrastructure, as
well as their impact on national security.

The analysis demonstrates a strong dependence on
Human Intelligence (HUMINT) and Open- Source
Intelligence (OSINT), highlighting their ongoing
importance in navigating Nigeria's complicated
security environment. HUMINT's strength is its
capacity to provide nuanced insights into
motivations and intentions, especially in the
context of insurgency and terrorism (Egbue &
Okoye, 2022). The rise of OSINT underscores the
increased relevance of utilizing the digital
ecosystem for intelligence purposes. However,
both HUMINT and OSINT face problems, such as

potential biases, resource requirements, and the
need for specialized analytical skills and

200

150

100

50

0

networks

conflicts

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technology tools to manage the enormous and
frequently unreliable information landscape
(Onuoha, 2021; Olaniyan & Yahaya, 2022).

The underutilization of Geospatial Intelligence
(GEOINT) and the virtual lack of Measurement and
Signature Intelligence (MASINT) represent lost
possibilities to improve situational awareness,
strategic planning, and threat identification. The
inadequate use of GEOINT, which gives critical
insights into topography, infrastructure, and
activity patterns, impedes successful security
operations and catastrophe management (Ezirim
& Urdi, 2023). The lack of MASINT, which is critical
for detecting and identifying threats related to
weapons of mass destruction and new
technologies, highlights the need for capacity
building in Nigeria's intelligence apparatus
(United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2021).

The survey results also reveal substantial hurdles
in inter-agency trust and cooperation. The
prevalence of "Low" and "Neutral" ratings for trust
and collaboration across agencies indicates a
fragmented intelligence landscape that impedes
effective information sharing and coordinated
responses to security threats (International Crisis
Group, 2023). This fragmentation can result in
inefficiencies, missed opportunities, and an
inefficient use of intelligence resources.

Furthermore, the report notes several obstacles
confronting intelligence organizations, such as
insufficient money, a lack of training and
competence, technology restrictions, inter-agency
rivalry, legal and bureaucratic constraints, and
corruption. These constraints hamper intelligence
services' ability to properly obtain, analyze, and
apply intelligence to handle Nigeria's varied
security concerns.

The perceived influence of intelligence on national
security outcomes is uneven. While intelligence is
regarded as extremely effective in defending

essential infrastructure, its impact on averting
terrorist attacks, disrupting criminal networks,
and resolving communal conflicts is viewed as
moderate. This implies that, while intelligence is
important, its success is dependent on elements
such as timely analysis, inter-agency coordination,
and addressing the underlying causes of conflict.

The outcomes of this study highlight the intricacies
and challenges inherent in Nigeria's intelligence
landscape. While there have been major gains,
notably in counterterrorism efforts, there is still
significant opportunity for improvement. Nigeria
can enhance its intelligence capabilities and
strengthen its national security by adopting global
best practices and adapting them to the Nigerian
context.

CONCLUSION

In Nigeria's national security landscape,
intelligence gathering plays a multifaceted
function, as the study has comprehensively
examined. The results highlight the essential role
of intelligence in addressing a variety of security
challenges, such as terrorism, insurgency,
organized crime, kidnapping, and cybercrime. The
analysis has also underscored the difficulties
encountered by Nigerian intelligence agencies,
including insufficient funding, technological
constraints, inter- agency competition, and the
necessity for improved training and expertise. The
integration of both quantitative and qualitative
data has yielded a detailed comprehension of the
intricacies and dynamics surrounding intelligence
operations in Nigeria. The findings of the study
hold considerable importance for those in
positions of authority, security professionals, and
scholars,

providing an essential understanding of the
strengths and weaknesses within Nigeria's
intelligence framework and proposing possible

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paths for enhancement and reform. This analysis
enhances the current understanding by offering a
thorough and contemporary evaluation of
intelligence gathering in Nigeria, especially
regarding the changing security environment. It
underscores the essential requirement for
enhanced funding in technology, the development
of human resources, and cooperation among
various agencies. The analysis highlights the
significance of tackling legal and ethical issues,
building public confidence, and drawing insights
from international best practices to improve the
efficacy of intelligence operations in Nigeria. This
study addresses a significant gap in the existing
literature by offering empirical evidence regarding
the perceived effectiveness of various intelligence-
gathering methods, the challenges encountered by
intelligence agencies, and the influence of
intelligence on national security results. The
results of the study can influence policy choices
and direct the creation of approaches to bolster
Nigeria's intelligence abilities and improve its
national security stance.

Recommendation

The results of this study highlight the essential
requirement for a comprehensive and strategic
method to improve intelligence collection and
application

in

Nigeria.

The

subsequent

recommendations are put forth, based on the
insights obtained from the analysis:

Enhancing Inter-Agency Coordination and
Collaboration

: The widespread challenge of inter-

agency rivalry and coordination difficulties calls
for the development of a strong framework for
collaboration. This may entail establishing a
centralized entity for intelligence coordination,
like the U.S. ODNI or the UK's JIC, to enhance the
efficiency of information sharing, analysis, and
decision-making processes. The implementation of
uniform operating procedures and data-sharing

protocols

can

significantly

improve

interoperability

and

promote

smooth

collaboration among agencies.

Improving Technological Capabilities

: The

findings emphasize the essential requirement for
investment in advanced technologies to close the
current technological gap. This involves obtaining
and upholding advanced surveillance technology,
analytical

tools

for

data,

and

secure

communication systems. The establishment of
strong cyber intelligence capabilities is crucial in
response to the changing landscape of cyber
threats.

Investing in Human Capital Development

: The

absence of sufficient training and expertise
highlights the necessity for significant investment
in the development of human capabilities. This
involves delivering thorough training initiatives,
creating avenues for career advancement, and
drawing in and keeping exceptional talent with
attractive compensation packages and a nurturing
workplace atmosphere.

Enhancing Legal and Ethical Structures

: The

existence of legal and bureaucratic limitations,
along with issues related to corruption and
unethical behaviour, underscores the need for a
strong legal and ethical structure for intelligence
operations. This encompasses well-defined laws
regulating

intelligence

operations,

strong

oversight frameworks, and fostering an
environment of responsibility and openness
within intelligence organizations.

Enhancing Community Engagement and Trust

:

The study's results underscore the significance of
establishing trust and cultivating collaboration
with local communities. Community policing
initiatives can facilitate this, by engaging
traditional leaders and local informants in
intelligence- gathering efforts, while also
addressing concerns related to human rights

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abuses.

Embracing a Diverse Intelligence Strategy

: The

excessive dependence on HUMINT and OSINT,
along with the insufficient use of GEOINT and
MASINT, highlights the necessity for a more varied
and well-rounded intelligence strategy. This
involves dedicating resources to the advancement
of skills in GEOINT and MASINT, utilizing their
potential to improve situational awareness,
strategic planning, and threat identification.

Examining Global Best Practices

: The

comparative analysis with international standards
uncovers important insights for Nigeria.
Implementing effective strategies and approaches
used by nations such as the U.S., UK, and Israel, and
tailoring them to fit the Nigerian context, can
greatly improve the efficiency of the country's
intelligence operations.

By adopting these suggestions, Nigeria can
enhance its intelligence capabilities, cultivate a
more unified and efficient intelligence community,
and reinforce its national security against
emerging threats.

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Apuke, O. D., & Tunca, E. (2023). Social media
intelligence (SOCMINT) and social media
analytics (SMA) for combating insecurity in
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Innovation and Development, 15(3), 381-391.

11.

Balogun, A. (2023). Intelligence Gathering and
the Fight against Terrorism in Nigeria. Journal
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12.

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Intelligence Success and Failure in Israel: The
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–

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13.

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14.

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VOLUME 06 ISSUE11

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173

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disinformation, and violent extremism. Peace
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17.

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Primer. Journal of Intelligence Studies, 25(2),
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18.

Buchanan, L., & Kehoe, L. (2021). Intelligence
Sharing and Counterterrorism Cooperation.
Journal of Strategic Studies, 44(5), 678

–

696.

19.

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Security: A New Framework for Analysis.
Lynne Rienner Publishers.

20.

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21.

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Intelligence and National Security, 36(1), 55–72.

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Obasi, N. (2022). Intelligence Sharing in Nigeria: Enhancing Coordination for National Security.

African Journal of Security, 18(3), 101–118.

Obi, C. (2022). National security and sustainable development in Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. Palgrave Macmillan.

Olaniyan, A. (2021). The role of geospatial intelligence in combating kidnapping and banditry in Nigeria. GeoJournal, 86, 3423–3438.

Olaniyan, A., & Yahaya, M. (2022). Intelligence Gathering and National Security in Nigeria: Challenges and Prospects. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), VI(VII), 339–346.

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https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.1.2017.76.505.520

Omoniyi, T., & Adewumi, F. (2022). Utilization of Social Media Intelligence (SOCMINT) in mitigating insecurity in Nigeria. International Journal of Cyber Warfare and Terrorism (IJCWT), 12(1), 1-18.

Onapajo, H., & Uzodike, U. (2022). Countering Terrorism in Nigeria: The Role of Human Intelligence. Journal of Terrorism Research, 13(2), 55-72.

Onuoha, F. (2019). National Security and Intelligence Management in Nigeria. Journal of Security and Crisis Management, 3(1), 12-25.

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Journal of Terrorism Research, 12(1), 17-35.

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Ratcliffe, J. (2021). Intelligence-led policing in an age of terrorism. Policing and Society, 31(10), 1151-1166.

Saani, A. (2021). Countering violent extremism in the Sahel: The role of open-source intelligence.

Journal of Terrorism Research, 12(3), 32-48.

Smith, J., et al. (2021). The Evolution of Electronic Intelligence: From the Cold War to the Present.

Intelligence and National Security, 36(4), 512-531.

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Ibadan, Nigeria: University Press PLC.

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Xin, H. (2020). The Evolution of China's Signals Intelligence Capabilities and Its Impact on Regional Security. The China Quarterly, 243, 737-760.

Youssef, N. (2020). Intelligence Reforms in Morocco: Challenges and Prospects. Journal of Intelligence and National Security, 35(1), 100-115.

Youssef, N. (2021). Border Security and Intelligence Gathering in Morocco: A Case Study of the Western Sahara. Journal of Borderlands Studies, 36(2), 280-298.

Youssef, N. (2022). Intelligence and Counterterrorism in Morocco: Strategies and Challenges. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 45(3), 210-228.

Zenn, J. (2020). Boko Haram: Islamic State's West African Province. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Zenn, J. (2021). Boko Haram's resilience and the fragmentation of jihadist movements in Nigeria.