THE ROLE OF INTELLIGENCE IN NIGERIA'S NATIONAL SECURITY: A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT (2011-2023)

Ayodele P. Olowonihi; Dr. M. O. Musa

doi:10.37547/tajiir/Volume06Issue11-08

Authors

Ayodele P. Olowonihi
PhD Student City University, Cambodia
Dr. M. O. Musa
Department of Cybersecurity, Faculty of Computing, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.37547/tajiir/Volume06Issue11-08

Keywords:

Intelligence National Security Counterterrorism

Abstract

This paper systematically analyses the function of intelligence in Nigeria's national security between 2011 and 2023, with a specific emphasis on countering both established and developing risks including terrorism, insurgency, banditry, cybercrime, and oil theft. The analysis reveals notable deficiencies in inter-agency cooperation, technology integration, and the incorporation of community-based intelligence, which have impeded the efficacy of intelligence operations, despite substantial investments in intelligence infrastructure. Based on Rational Choice Theory, this analysis assesses the methods by which intelligence organizations collect, analyse, and employ intelligence to reduce security threats. The study utilizes a research design that involves a thorough literature analysis to assess the current academic research on intelligence and national security in the Nigerian setting. The results emphasize the necessity for more cooperation among security services, better integration of technology, and further engagement of the community in intelligence operations. This study enhances scholarly discourse and offers practical suggestions for policymakers to bolster Nigeria's intelligence infrastructure in tackling its intricate security issues.

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PUBLISHED DATE: - 04-11-2024
DOI: -

https://doi.org/10.37547/tajiir/Volume06Issue11-08

PAGE NO.: - 113-141

THE ROLE OF INTELLIGENCE IN NIGERIA'S
NATIONAL SECURITY: A CRITICAL
ASSESSMENT (2011-2023)

Ayodele P. Olowonihi

PhD Student City University, Cambodia

Dr. M. O. Musa

Department of Cybersecurity, Faculty of Computing, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

ORCID

:

https://orcid.org/0009-0009-7336-5709

INTRODUCTION

From 2011 to 2023, Nigeria grappled with a
complex and evolving security landscape marked
by rising threats such as terrorism, insurgency,
banditry, kidnapping, and communal conflicts.
These challenges severely impacted national
security, destabilizing the country and creating
widespread socio-economic disruptions. The Boko
Haram insurgency, which began in 2009,

intensified during this period, particularly in the
northeastern region, leading to mass casualties,
displacement, and economic devastation. In
response, Nigeria's security apparatus struggled to
manage these escalating threats effectively,
highlighting the critical role of intelligence in
national security.

The period saw not only the rise of Boko Haram but

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Open Access

Abstract

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also an increase in banditry, particularly in the
northwest and north-central regions. Armed
groups engaged in cattle rustling, kidnapping for
ransom, and attacks on communities, further
destabilizing the country. The persistence of these
threats underscored the inadequacy of Nigeria's
intelligence systems in effectively anticipating and
neutralizing such dangers. Moreover, the Niger
Delta continued to be plagued by oil theft, pipeline
vandalism, and illegal bunkering, depriving the
nation of crucial revenue and exacerbating
environmental and social unrest. The intersection
of economic motivations, corruption, and security
vulnerabilities highlighted the need for a robust
intelligence framework to address these
interconnected issues.

Regional disparities and ethnic tensions further
fuelled communal conflicts, leading to extensive
property damage, casualties, and forced migration.
In addition to these internal threats, Nigeria also
faced piracy in the Gulf of Guinea and other forms
of organized crime. These complex challenges
strained

Nigeria's

security

infrastructure,

revealing significant gaps in intelligence gathering,
analysis, and utilization.

Against this backdrop, intelligence plays a vital
role in understanding the intentions, capabilities,
and operations of various threat actors. The ability
to gather, analyse, and disseminate accurate
intelligence is crucial for informed decision-
making and the development of effective national
security policies. This study critically assesses the
role of intelligence in addressing Nigeria's
multifaceted security challenges from 2011 to
2023, emphasizing the need for comprehensive
reforms in the intelligence sector to safeguard
national security effectively.

Statement of Problem

The role of intelligence in Nigeria’s national

security from 2011 to 2023 reveals significant
deficiencies that hinder its effectiveness in

addressing the country’s complex security

challenges. While considerable research has
focused on traditional threats like terrorism and
insurgency (Onuoha, 2019), there remains a
substantial gap in studies addressing non-
traditional threats such as organized crime,
cybercrime, and environmental degradation
(Adetula & Adeoye, 2021). This lack of
comprehensive research on emerging security

threats limits the ability of Nigeria’s intelligence

system to fully grasp and respond to the evolving
security landscape.

Additionally, much of the literature emphasizes
intelligence-gathering techniques but pays less
attention to how intelligence is utilized by
policymakers and security agencies (Olaniyan &
Yahaya, 2022). This oversight clouds the
understanding of the actual contribution of
intelligence to decision-making processes in
national security. Moreover, the integration of
local knowledge and community engagement

—

key factors that can enhance intelligence
effectiveness

—

is often neglected (Albert, 2021).

Failing to incorporate these local insights further
hampers the ability of intelligence operations to
address security threats effectively at the
grassroots level.

The need for comparative studies with other
countries facing similar security challenges also
remains unmet. Without these comparative
analyses, opportunities to learn from best
practices and improve Nigeria's intelligence
frameworks are missed. Moreover, the ethical and
legal implications of intelligence practices in
Nigeria have not been sufficiently explored
(Onuoha, 2023), raising concerns about potential
human rights violations, lack of accountability, and
inadequate oversight. These gaps indicate an
urgent need for stronger legal and ethical
frameworks to ensure that intelligence operations
are conducted within acceptable bounds.

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Despite substantial investments in security
agencies and intelligence infrastructure, Nigeria
continues to grapple with terrorism, insurgency,
banditry, kidnapping, and communal conflicts
(International Crisis Group, 2023). These
persistent threats have caused significant
casualties, economic instability, and widespread
insecurity. There is a pressing need for more
research on the effectiveness of intelligence
gathering and utilization in Nigeria, focusing on the
adequacy of current frameworks, inter-agency
collaboration, and the proactive use of intelligence
to mitigate security risks.

This study critically assesses the role of
intelligence in Nigeria's national security from
2011 to 2023. It aims to identify the gaps in the
current intelligence system, evaluate the
effectiveness of intelligence gathering and
utilization, and propose practical solutions to

strengthen Nigeria’s security infrastructure.

Purpose of the Study

Aim:

The primary aim of this study is to critically assess
the role of intelligence in enhancing national
security in Nigeria from 2011 to 2023. This
involves a comprehensive examination of
intelligence gathering, analysis, and utilization
within the context of Nigeria's evolving security
landscape.

Objectives:

To achieve this aim, the study's specific objectives
are to:

I.

Evaluate the effectiveness of

intelligence-gathering mechanisms employed in
Nigeria, including human intelligence, signals
intelligence, and open-source intelligence.

II.

Identify and analyse the key challenges

faced by intelligence agencies in Nigeria, such as
resource constraints, inter-agency coordination

issues, and legal and ethical considerations.

III.

Assess the impact of intelligence

operations on national security outcomes in
Nigeria, examining both successes and failures in
countering security threats.

Significance of the Study

Through an evaluation of the role of intelligence in
national security, this study offers empirically
supported recommendations to guide policy
formation and strategic planning, providing crucial
insights for policymakers and security agencies in
Nigeria. The evaluation seeks to improve
intelligence operations by identifying crucial
strengths, shortcomings, and opportunities for
development, therefore achieving more effective
and efficient national security results. The
research bridges significant gaps in the academic
discussion on intelligence and national security,
namely in the Nigerian context, by offering a
comprehensive examination of intelligence
operations in a multifaceted and changing security
landscape. The results enhance the overall
comprehension of intelligence activities, therefore
providing utility to researchers, academics, and
students with an interest in intelligence studies,
national security, and African security concerns.
Furthermore, this study functions as a historical
account, recording the experiences, difficulties,
and achievements of Nigerian intelligence services
at a time of substantial security obstacles. This
material provides significant perspectives for
future generations of policymakers, security
analysts, and scholars, therefore establishing this
study as a comprehensive resource that connects
policy and academic discourse on intelligence and
national security in Nigeria.

Conceptual Review

National Security

In Nigeria, national security is a complex and
multifaceted

concept

that

encompasses

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safeguarding the nation's sovereignty, territorial
integrity, and national interests against both
internal and external threats (Obi, 2022). This
requires a comprehensive approach that combines
political stability, economic security, social
cohesion, and military defense. Throughout
history, the security landscape of Nigeria has been
shaped by the colonial era under British rule.
During this time, the focus was on suppressing
local resistance and maintaining colonial order
through military strategies and policies (Falola,
2021). The Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970) was
the result of various factors that plagued the nation
after gaining independence in 1960. These factors
included political instability, regional rivalries, and
ethnic tensions, which ultimately led to the conflict
(Ojieh, 2023).

The Nigerian national security concept focuses on
safeguarding the state, its sovereignty, territorial
integrity, and regime from external aggression
(Omenka et al., 2017).

Nigeria faces numerous security challenges that
pose a threat to its internal security. These
challenges include terrorism, insurgency, banditry,
militancy, and the illegal importation of arms
(Ibani, 2024).

The nation's security agencies have a crucial role in
safeguarding and advancing national security.
They achieve this by implementing a well-thought-
out strategic plan that emphasizes the importance
of border communities (Nnadi & Okoye, 2022).

The prevailing insecurity situation in Nigeria has
had

far-reaching

consequences,

including

widespread violence, hindrance to growth and
development, and the creation of a vulnerable
security environment that has adverse effects on
economic sustainability and the ability to generate
wealth (Azu et al., 2021).

Nigeria's economic development and foreign
direct investment are heavily impacted by national

security, as highlighted in a recent study (Opuala-
Charles & Oshilike, 2022).

Nigeria is currently grappling with several
pressing security issues. Since 2009, Boko Haram
has emerged as a major threat, primarily engaging
in insurgency operations, kidnappings, and
terrorist attacks in the northeastern region
(Onuoha, 2020). The security situation has been
worsened by the emergence of the Islamic State
West Africa Province (ISWAP), a dissident group
from Boko Haram, which has carried out attacks on
both military and civilian targets (Zenn, 2021). In
the Middle Belt region, conflicts over land and
resources are common due to the country's diverse
ethnic makeup. These differences often lead to
communal disputes (Adebanwi, 2022). Political
instability and corruption pose a serious threat to
national security, as they undermine public trust in
institutions and fuel grievances that can
potentially escalate into disturbances (Agbiboa,
2020). There has been a significant rise in the
occurrence of kidnapping for ransom, with bandits
operating in different regions, especially in the
northwest. This poses a serious threat to both
locals and foreigners, as highlighted by the
International Crisis Group in 2023. In addition, the
nation's economic security has been impacted by
the historical focus on oil infrastructure by militant
groups in the Niger Delta, aiming to secure a
greater share of oil revenues (Watts, 2020).

The Nigerian government's approach to
addressing security challenges, such as the Boko
Haram insurgency and abduction activities,
highlights the need for enhanced capabilities
within security institutions (TERZUNGWE, 2024).

Exploring national security in Nigeria involves
studying different security risks, such as
cyberterrorism, food security, and the impact of
internet-based communication channels on
national security (Kente, 2024; Asogwa, 2020).

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Intelligence Gathering

Intelligence gathering, as defined by Lowenthal
(2020), refers to the methodical acquisition and
examination of information from many sources to
generate practical insights for policymakers and
military commanders. It plays a crucial role in
ensuring national security by helping identify
potential risks and possibilities in domestic and
international contexts. Shulsky and Schmitt (2023)
provide additional details on this definition,
highlighting that intelligence gathering specifically
involves collecting information about foreign
entities, encompassing their goals, capabilities,
and operations. In this procedure, they emphasize
the significance of several techniques, including
espionage, signals interception, and open-source
intelligence analysis. The writers emphasize the
importance of incorporating technical and human
components in intelligence operations to
comprehend the worldwide security landscape
and efficiently combat threats. Clark (2022)
proposes a target-centric strategy for intelligence
collecting, which involves numerous stakeholders
collaborating and iterating to acquire and evaluate
information pertinent to specific national security
objectives. He highlights the significance of
incorporating various information sources and
concentrating on certain objectives to guarantee
the effectiveness of intelligence collection.

Moreover, Warner (2024) defines intelligence
collection as the process of obtaining crucial
information necessary for comprehending the
capabilities, intents, and plans of enemies. In this
procedure, the author acknowledges the
utilization of both concealed and obvious
techniques, such as espionage, reconnaissance,
and analysis of publicly available information.
Warner emphasizes the crucial importance of
intelligence collecting in safeguarding national
security, as it furnishes the necessary information
to predict and counteract threats, thus

safeguarding a nation's interests and maintaining
its strategic superiority.

While,

Buthelezi

(2024)

examines

the

implementation of crime intelligence-led policing,
emphasizing the need for agencies to comprehend
signals and warnings to avoid shortcomings in
obtained intelligence data, highlighting the
significance of proficient intelligence analysis

Additionally, Hasan (2022) offers a comprehensive
definition of intelligence gathering, emphasizing
information collection, analysis, and distribution
to

authorized

individuals

as

actionable

intelligence. This definition underscores the
significant impact of intelligence in guiding
decision-making processes for national security.

Prof. Peter Vale regards intelligence collecting to
ensure both states' security and regions' stability.
The book "Security and Politics in South Africa: The
Regional Dimension" (2021) examines the
cooperation between South Africa's intelligence
agencies and neighboring nations in dealing with
transnational challenges such as terrorism and
organized crime. The author examines the
achievements

and

shortcomings

of

this

collaboration, emphasizing the significance of
trust, sharing of information, and synchronized
actions, Vale, P. (2021). In his 2023 paper, he
advocates for a more assertive role for the African
Union in intelligence collection, proposing that a
pan- African strategy may strengthen early
warning systems and attempts to prevent conflicts.
Vale, P. (2023).

Nigerian researchers have continually highlighted
the importance of intelligence collecting in tackling
the nation's complex security concerns.

Oke and Braimah (2021) suggest community
policing to boost intelligence collecting,
acknowledging the necessity for development.
Proponents assert that involving local people can
offer security authorities useful perspectives and

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data, enhancing their ability to mitigate criminal
activities and insurgencies.

Nigeria has a multifaceted security landscape
marked by issues such as terrorism, insurgency,
militancy, and banditry, all of which pose
substantial threats to human security (Ojo, 2020).
Intricate security challenges lead to uncontrolled
areas that facilitate the expansion of terrorist
organizations and criminal networks, posing an
additional threat to national security (Ojo, 2020).

Intelligence collecting is a fundamental aspect of
national security that involves gathering,
analysing, and distributing information related to
possible threats to a nation's interests and its
inhabitants (Gill & Phythian, 2021). Intelligence is
essential in preserving stability and averting war
in today's intricate global environment, which is
characterized by a wide range of ever- changing
dangers (Bjelopera, 2023). The information
obtained from this source allows governments and
security services to anticipate and counteract
many dangers, including terrorism, cyberattacks,
organized crime, and espionage (Ratcliffe, 2020.
The issue of kidnapping in Nigeria is considered a
significant security concern. It is examined within
the security context to understand its causes and
impact on national security (Ezemenaka, 2018).
Examining security concerns such as kidnapping
provides significant insights into the overall
security situation in Nigeria.

An essential benefit of efficient intelligence
collection is the capacity to recognize and address
security threats (Johnson, 2022). Intelligence
organizations utilize a variety of sources, such as
human intelligence (HUMINT), signals intelligence
(SIGINT), and open-source information (OSINT), to
develop a thorough comprehension of potential
dangers (Conway, 2021). This procedure enables
the timely identification of emerging dangers,
enabling security personnel to proactively
implement actions to eliminate them before they

develop into severe crises (Lowenthal, 2020).
Intelligence gathering plays a crucial role in
counterterrorism

by

discovering

terrorist

networks, monitoring their activities, and
thwarting their goals (Chesney, 2022). Similarly, in
cybersecurity, intelligence plays a crucial role in
identifying and monitoring malicious activity,
understanding the strategies employed by threat
actors, and adopting defensive measures to protect
critical infrastructure (Clark & Landau, 2023). The
rise of this fundamentalist Islamic movement has
presented a substantial threat to Nigeria's security,
necessitating a more thorough investigation into
Islamic organizations and their possible influence
on national security (Ajodo-Adebanjoko et al.,
2019). The actions taken by security institutions in
response to conflicts and security threats, like the
Boko Haram insurgency, emphasize the need to
improve security capacities to manage changing
challenges (TERZUNGWE, 2024) successfully.

Intelligence Gathering Methods

Human Intelligence (HUMINT)

Human Intelligence (HUMINT) is a cornerstone of
intelligence operations, particularly in espionage,
involving the collection of information from
human sources through various techniques
(Omand, 2022; Herman, 2023). HUMINT officers,
often operating undercover, engage in activities
such as recruiting spies and cultivating informants
(Miller, 2021). Despite requiring extensive training
and resources, HUMINT remains a cost-effective
intelligence-gathering method due to its unique
ability to build relationships and adapt to dynamic
situations (Lehrs, 2019).

Furthermore, academic research emphasizes
HUMINT's enduring value in understanding
human behavior and motivations, often
overlooked by technological intelligence (Gill,
2021; Andrew, 2020). Experts highlight its role in
deciphering complex threats, providing context,
and offering qualitative insights that complement

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other intelligence sources (Phythian, 2024).

Moreover, in Nigeria, HUMINT has been
instrumental

in

countering

terrorism,

understanding insurgencies, and addressing
political instability (Onapajo & Uzodike, 2022;
Olaniyan & Okunola, 2021). However, the complex
socio-political environment and the potential for
misinformation pose challenges (Akinyetun &
Olaniyi, 2020).

Similarly, the funnel technique in HUMINT
enhances the relevance, accuracy, and actionability
of gathered intelligence (Driessen et al., 2022;
Sampaio, 2019). By systematically narrowing
down information, analysts can prioritize leads
and verify the reliability of sources.

HUMINT is indispensable for national security,
providing

a

human-centric

approach

to

intelligence gathering. Its ability to provide unique
insights into events, motivations, and intentions
makes it invaluable in navigating complex security
challenges, particularly in regions like Nigeria.

Signals Intelligence (SIGINT)

Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) involves intercepting
and analyzing electronic communications for
intelligence purposes (Omand, 2023). Scholars and
experts like Bamford (2022), Hayden (2018), and
Kahn (2016) highlight its crucial role in national
security and counterterrorism efforts. SIGINT
encompasses

various

activities,

including

intercepting communications, analyzing radar
emissions, and monitoring electronic activity
(Aldrich, 2020).

The importance of SIGINT is recognized globally. In
Israel, it plays a key role in military and
counterterrorism operations (Cohen, 2023). The
Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies
(2023) highlights its growing adoption in the
Middle East, impacting regional security. Asian
nations like China, Japan, India, and South Korea
have invested in SIGINT capabilities to address

geopolitical challenges (Lee, 2023; Jian, 2022;
Hughes, 2023; Nakamura, 2023; Singh, 2023;

Kumar, 2022; Kim, 2022; Park, 2023; Chan, 2021).

In Africa, SIGINT is increasingly recognized as vital
for national security. Scholars like Plaut (2022)
and Kagwanja (2021) emphasize its role in conflict
resolution, counterterrorism, and cybersecurity.
The work of Rotberg (2020) and Duncan (2022)
further highlights its growing importance in the
region, while Ben Gharbia (2021) raises concerns
about its potential misuse.

Nigerian experts also underscore the significance
of SIGINT in addressing the nation's security
challenges. Professor Amao (2023) and Major
General Monguno (retd.) (2023) highlight its role
in counterterrorism and national security strategy.
Akilu

(2022)

emphasizes

the

ethical

considerations,

while

Muhammad

(2021)

acknowledges the operational challenges. The
Defence Intelligence Agency (2023) and other
experts like Ejiofor (2022), Usman (2022), and
Okenyodo (2023) further emphasize SIGINT's
diverse applications in counterintelligence,
military operations, and cybersecurity.

SIGINT is a critical intelligence discipline with
diverse applications and growing importance
globally and in Nigeria. It plays a crucial role in
addressing various security challenges, from
counterterrorism to cybersecurity. However, its
implementation requires careful consideration of
ethical and operational complexities.

SIGINT is divided into two primary components:
Communications Intelligence (COMINT) and
Electronic Intelligence (ELINT).

Communications Intelligence (COMINT)

Communications Intelligence (COMINT) involves
intercepting and analyzing communications to
gather valuable intelligence. This field has been
extensively studied and documented by experts
such as Smith (2021), Garcia (2022), and Harris

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(2023). Monitoring electronic communications
such as phone calls and emails is a valuable tool for
gaining insights into the intentions, capabilities,
and activities of individuals, groups, or entities
(Thompson, 2020; Kumar, 2021). It is of utmost
importance in ensuring the safety of our nation,
countering terrorism, and providing valuable
insights for military and political decision-making
(Lee, 2024; Brown, 2020).

The ever-changing landscape of communication
technologies has forced COMINT capabilities to
continuously adapt and keep pace with
technological advancements (Chen, 2023; Wilson,
2022). The growing integration of COMINT and
cyber intelligence highlights the importance of
cooperation between intelligence agencies and
cybersecurity experts (Lee, 2024; Chen, 2023).

In Africa, COMINT is widely acknowledged as
crucial for tackling a wide range of security
challenges. Experts highlight its importance in
countering terrorism, comprehending political
dynamics,

and

bolstering

peacekeeping

endeavours (Nwosu, 2021; Bello, 2022; Okonkwo,
2023). The operational and strategic significance
of COMINT is emphasized by its role in providing
valuable information for decision-making, aiding
military operations, and strengthening national
and regional security. This has been highlighted by
various researchers (Adamu, 2020; Johnson, 2024;
Adebayo, 2022; Suleiman, 2021).

Nigerian experts emphasize the significance of
COMINT in addressing the nation's security
concerns. Extensive studies have highlighted the
immense importance of this area in various
domains such as counterterrorism, national
security strategy, and the protection of critical
infrastructure (Amao, 2023; Monguno, 2023;
Okenyodo, 2023). The ethical and operational
aspects related to COMINT are also recognized
(Akilu, 2022; Muhammad, 2021).

Electronic Intelligence (ELINT)

Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) involves the
interception and analysis of non-communicative
electronic signals, such as radar and weapon
system emissions, to obtain accurate information
on the capabilities of adversaries (Smith, 2021;
Garcia, 2022). The primary aim of ELINT is to
produce intelligence that facilitates well-informed
decision-making, assistance in military operations,
strategic planning, and the mitigation of risks
(Harris, 2023; Thompson, 2020).

The dynamic technical environment requires
ongoing adjustment in ELINT operations (Chen,
2023; Wilson, 2022). The growing integration of
electronic intelligence (ELINT) and cyber
intelligence underscores the need of closer
cooperation between intelligence organizations
and cybersecurity professionals (Lee, 2024).

The importance of ELINT in Africa is increasing as
it pertains to a range of security issues such as
counterterrorism,

political

analysis,

and

peacekeeping operations (Gonzales, 2024; Eze,
2021; Bello, 2022). The capacity to expose the
technological capabilities and intents of opponents
assists in developing efficient countermeasures
and strengthening national and regional security
(Okafor, 2023; Adamu, 2020).

Nigerian specialists emphasise the significance of
ELINT in several fields. Gaining insight into
dangers, providing guidance for national security
strategies, and facilitating military operations is of
utmost importance (Amao, 2023; Monguno, 2023).
Furthermore, ELINT has a role in opposing non-
state entities, strengthening peacekeeping
operations, and promoting regional security
collaboration (Balogun, 2022; Musa, 2021).

Scholars in the field of ELINT also highlight the
technological components, specifically examining
the influence of progress in electronic systems and
the imperative for ongoing innovation (Nwafor,

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2022; Eze, 2021).

Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT)

Open-source intelligence (OSINT) refers to the
methodical gathering and examination of
information that is accessible to the public (Clark,
2020). It is of great importance in the fields of
national security, business, and law enforcement.
Prominent scholars emphasize its significance in
comprehending social and political patterns,
assisting investigative journalism, and countering
misinformation (Goldman, 2021; Schiffrin, 2023;
François, 2024).

Globally, Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT) is
gaining recognition for its wide range of
applications. Within South America, it facilitates
the surveillance of drug trafficking, organized
crime, and political instability (Lescano, 2020).
Furthermore, it serves the purpose of monitoring
social forces, exposing instances of corruption, and
advocating for environmental preservation (Pérez
Ricart, 2021; Montel, 2022; Naranjo, 2023). OSINT
is employed in Europe for investigative journalism,
surveillance of extremist organizations, and study
of conflicts, with paramount importance placed on
ethical and legal concerns (Busch, 2020;
Ermoshina, 2021; Soesanto, 2022; Hart, 2023; van
der Goes, 2024). Within the Asian region, it plays a
significant

role

in

military

intelligence,

counterterrorism

operations,

and

the

comprehension of geopolitical dynamics (Lele,
2020; Gunaratna, 2021; Emmers, 2022; Chen,
2023; Boon, 2024).

Within Africa, Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT) is
increasingly acknowledged for its capacity to
tackle security, social, and political issues. Within
the North African region, it serves to counteract
terrorism, examine societal patterns, and assess
economic information (El-Sherif, 2022; Ghali,
2021; El Dahshan, 2023). Furthermore, the ethical
concerns and the possibility of misuse are well
recognised (Boubekeur, 2020). Open-Source

Intelligence (OSINT) is employed in investigative
journalism and law enforcement in South Africa.
However, there are ongoing worries about
surveillance and privacy (Duncan, 2021; Mokoena,
2023; Zuma, 2022). OSINT plays a significant role
in West Africa by supporting counterterrorism,
conflict prevention, combating violent extremism,
and facilitating humanitarian aid initiatives
(Fagbenle, 2023; Aning, 2022; Saani, 2021;
Theroux-Benoni, 2020; Ba, 2024).

In Nigeria, source intelligence (OSINT) is becoming
more recognized as essential for tackling security
issues. This facilitates comprehension and
prediction of potential dangers, provides valuable
insights for national security plans, and reinforces
counterterrorism endeavours (Ekhomu, 2020;
Monguno, 2021; Akilu, 2022). Its importance in
improving situational awareness is acknowledged
by the Nigerian Defence Intelligence Agency
(2024). To safeguard privacy and uphold human
rights, ethical concerns and responsible use are
given significant emphasis (Ibrahim, 2023).

Social media intelligence (SOCMINT)

Social Media Intelligence (SOCMINT) is the
collection and analysis of data drawn from social
media platforms to gain insights into public
opinion, developing concerns, and significant
individuals or organizations (Murphy, 2024).
Furthermore, it employs sophisticated analytics
and machine learning techniques to oversee,
gather, and analyse user-generated information
and interactions (Johnson, 2022). Societal
Intelligence (SOCMINT) is utilized in crisis
management, brand reputation management,
political analysis, and terrorist operations (Brown,
2021; Garcia, 2023).

Nevertheless, SOCMINT encounters obstacles on
data protection, ethics, and the requirement for
advanced analytical protocols to manage vast
volumes of social media data (Murphy, 2024).
Given the widespread existence of false and

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misleading information, it is imperative to
implement strong verification and validation
procedures.

Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT)

To comprehend spatial patterns and correlations,
Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT) include the
collection, analysis, and visualization of spatially
referenced data (Campbell, 2023; Stefanidis et al.,
2021). Utilizing satellite imagery, maps, and GIS,
this technology finds applications in national
security, disaster response, urban planning, and
environmental monitoring (National Geospatial-
Intelligence Agency, 2024).

GEOINT is highly valued by experts for its ability to
offer a comprehensive grasp of the physical
environment, therefore assisting decision-making
in many fields (Campbell, 2022; Lewis, 2023). By
allowing the examination of geographical patterns
and correlations, it improves situational
awareness and enables well-informed decisions in
military, intelligence, and disaster response (Hall,
2021; Brown, 2020; Kumar, 2021; Thompson,
2024).

The applications of general intelligence (GEOINT)
span multiple levels. Taking a global viewpoint, it
facilitates comprehension of the interdependence
across different regions and countries (Li & Jonas,
2019). On a national scale, it facilitates economic
growth, safeguards national security, and aids in
policy development (Sosale, 2014).

Geospatial Intelligence (GEOINT) plays a vital role
in Nigeria by facilitating the comprehension of
spatial patterns, evaluation of opponent
capabilities, and provision of assistance for
military operations and regional security
endeavours (Nwafor, 2022; Ogundele, 2024;
Okeke, 2023; Suleiman, 2021; Adebayo, 2022).
Furthermore, it facilitates the surveillance and
mitigation of many risks, including insurgency and
organized crime (Okonkwo, 2023; Nwosu, 2021).

Both SOCMINT and GEOINT are crucial sources of
intelligence with a wide range of practical uses.
Strategic Intelligence (SOCMINT) gives immediate
and up-to-date information on public opinion and
developing patterns, while Geospatial Intelligence
(GEOINT) provides a thorough comprehension of
the physical surroundings and their influence on
different fields. Both fields encounter distinct
obstacles but are essential for making well-
informed decisions and implementing appropriate
tactics to address security risks in a more intricate
global environment.

Measurement and Signature Intelligence
(MASINT)

MASINT is a diverse intelligence discipline
focusing on the advanced processing and
exploitation of data to gain insights into various
intelligence issues, including weapons capabilities,
industrial activities, and WMD proliferation (Office
of the Director of National Intelligence, 2023;
Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2024; Department
of Defense, 2022). It involves gathering, analyzing,
and interpreting data from distinct signatures or
characteristics of various sources, including radar,
acoustic, chemical, biological, and nuclear
emissions (Sharma et al., 2020).

Experts highlight MASINT's role in enhancing
situational awareness and decision-making,
uncovering covert operations, and monitoring
environmental changes (Brown, 2021; Thompson,
2023; Hall, 2022; Garcia, 2021). It provides unique
information

unattainable

through

other

intelligence disciplines, particularly in verifying
compliance with international treaties (Smith,
2020; Chen, 2023).

In Nigeria, MASINT is recognized for its
contribution to assessing adversary capabilities,
enhancing defense strategies, and mitigating
security risks (Okeke, 2023; Ogundele, 2024;
Nwafor, 2022). It aids in counterterrorism,
intelligence-led policing, and supporting military

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operations (Suleiman, 2021; Johnson, 2024;
Adebayo, 2022; Okonkwo, 2023).

MASINT's significance extends beyond national
borders, with applications in peacekeeping
missions and regional security cooperation (Bello,
2022; Nwosu, 2021). The continuous advancement
of MASINT technologies and methodologies is
crucial for addressing complex challenges and
threats in an ever-evolving landscape.

Nigerian intelligence agencies and structures

Department of State Services

Nigeria's major domestic intelligence agency, the
DSS, protects national security and governmental
interests. It replaced the Nigerian Security
Organization (NSO) in 1986 to improve internal
security (Adebayo, 2021; Ojukwu, 2020). Its duties
include counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and
high-ranking official protection (Ogun, 2023).

DSS directorates cover intelligence, operations,
investigation, and security (Ojukwu, 2020). It faces
financial issues and human rights concerns
notwithstanding its triumphs (Adetunji, 2022).

National Intelligence Agency (NIA)

Nigeria's premier foreign intelligence agency, the
NIA, was founded in 1986 to conduct external and
counterintelligence

activities

(Odu,

2022;

Adebayo, 2021). It collects and analyses foreign
entity data and conducts covert actions to protect
Nigeria's interests overseas (Eze, 2021).

The NIA supports counterterrorism, international
trade talks, and diplomatic relations through its
operations, analysis, technical services, and
administration directorates (Ahmed, 2023; Odu,
2022). It is hampered by inter-agency rivalry and
resource restrictions (Ojo, 2021).

Defense Intelligence Agency

DIA, Nigeria's military intelligence agency, was
founded in 1986 to serve the military. It gathers
military threat intelligence, conducts strategic

reconnaissance, and supports defense planning
and operations, including counterinsurgency
(Usman, 2022).

The DIA has military intelligence, defense analysis,
technical services, and administration directorates
(Akin, 2021). It struggles to gather and analyse
intelligence due to resource and technological
constraints.

Nigeria Police Force

Internal security and public order depend on the
NPF. To meet changing security concerns, its
Criminal

Investigation

Department

(CID)

comprises intelligence units (Johnson, 2020; Olu,
2023). Modern forensic labs and surveillance
technology help these units fight crime and
terrorism alongside domestic and foreign agencies
(Adetunji, 2022).

Insufficient financing, corruption, and public
scepticism hamper the NPF's efficacy (Adewale,
2022).

Nigerian Customs and Immigration Service

The NCS and NIS are crucial to border and internal
security. The NCS enforces customs and anti-
smuggling, whereas the NIS controls immigration
and borders (Bello, 2021; Okon, 2023). Both
organizations use innovative technologies to
improve intelligence (Ahmed, 2022).

Corruption, inadequate resources, and inter-
agency coordination may undermine their
effectiveness.

Nigeria's intelligence community has many
agencies with different missions. They have
contributed to national security, but resource
constraints, technological deficiencies, inter-
agency coordination concerns, and corruption
must be addressed to assure their continued
efficacy in the face of emerging security threats.

Security Challenges in Nigeria

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Nigeria faces a complex security environment
characterized by diverse threats, including the
Boko Haram insurgency, armed banditry, oil theft
and pipeline vandalism, and cybercrime.

Boko Haram

Boko Haram, a Salafi jihadist group, emerged in
2002 intending to establish an Islamic state in
Nigeria (International Crisis Group, 2019). The
group's rise has been fuelled by poor governance,
corruption, and economic inequality, enabling it to
exploit state vulnerabilities (Onuoha, 2019; Ayuba
& Tar, 2022). Under Abubakar Shekau's
leadership, Boko Haram transformed into a violent
insurgency, employing brutal tactics like suicide
bombings, kidnappings, and the use of child
soldiers (Zenn, 2014; Cook, 2017). The conflict has
resulted in widespread displacement, civilian
casualties, and a humanitarian crisis (United
Nations Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs, 2023; Alabi, 2022).

Armed Banditry

Armed banditry, driven by socio-economic and
political factors, poses a significant security threat
in Nigeria (Salihu, 2021). It manifests in various
forms, including cattle rustling, kidnapping for
ransom, and armed robbery, causing widespread
insecurity and economic disruption (Blench, 2020;
Ojo, 2021; Okoli & Ugwu, 2019). The Northwest
region is particularly affected, with Zamfara,
Katsina, and Sokoto experiencing a surge in
violence (International Crisis Group, 2020).

Oil Theft and Pipeline Vandalism

Oil theft and pipeline vandalism, prevalent in the
Niger Delta, involve illegal oil extraction and trade,
causing significant economic losses and
environmental damage (Nwankpa et al., 2022;
Akpobie et al., 2023). This illicit activity is linked to
corruption, organized crime, and the involvement
of state actors (Ekekwe, 2023; The Sentry, 2022).
The consequences include revenue loss,

environmental degradation, and social unrest
(World Bank, 2022; UNEP, 2023).

Cybercrime

Cybercrime, encompassing illegal activities
facilitated by digital technology, poses a growing
threat globally and in Nigeria (UNODC, 2021;
Interpol, 2020). In Nigeria, cybercriminals exploit
social media platforms for various fraudulent
activities (Adewale & Adeniran, 2023). The
increasing prevalence of cybercrime necessitates
promoting cyber ethics, enhancing cybersecurity
awareness, and strengthening international
cooperation to mitigate its impact (Ogunyemi &
Ajao, 2022; NSA, 2020; Egbuchulam, 2021).

Political Violence

Political violence, encompassing various violent
acts for political goals, is a complex global issue
(Kalyvas, 2006). In Nigeria, it manifests as
terrorism, ethnic conflicts, and electoral violence,
impacting stability and development (Onuoha &
Ugwu, 2023; Premium Times, 2023). The Boko
Haram insurgency, separatist agitations, and
electoral violence pose significant challenges
(UNOCHA, 2023; International Crisis Group, 2023;
Ojo, 2021).

Communal Conflicts

Communal conflicts, often rooted in ethnic,
religious, or resource-based differences, are
prevalent in Nigeria (Kalyvas, 2006). Factors like
competition for resources, historical grievances,
identity politics, and environmental degradation
contribute to these conflicts (Onuoha, 2021;
Kukah, 2021; Nwankwo, 2020; Adetula, 2022;
Usman, 2021). Political manipulation, weak
governance, and state repression further
exacerbate tensions (Ojo, 2021; Osaghae, 2022;
Adeniyi, 2020).

Organized Crime

Organized crime in Nigeria involves illicit activities

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by structured groups, impacting security, the
economy, and social fabric (Alemika, 2021). Drug
trafficking, human trafficking, arms smuggling, and
financial crimes are prevalent, often linked to
political corruption and transnational networks
(Ibrahim, 2022; Oluwadare, 2021; Okafor, 2022).
These activities generate profits, perpetuate
instability, and undermine the rule of law
(Agbiboa, 2020).

Theoretical Framework

Rational Choice Theory (RCT)

Rational Choice Theory (RCT) is a fundamental
framework in the social sciences, that posits that
individuals make decisions to maximize their self-
interest based on consistent preferences and cost-
benefit analysis (Askari et al., 2019; Nitsch &
Kalenscher, 2020). RCT offers valuable insights
into decision-making processes within national
security and intelligence gathering (Hiep & Tram,
2020).

Applications and Assumptions

RCT assumes that individuals and organizations
are rational, aiming to maximize utility and
minimize costs (Becker, 2021). It posits self-
interest as the primary motivator, with decision-
makers choosing the option yielding the greatest
benefit (Friedman, 2020; Elster, 2022). RCT also
assumes access to relevant information and
consistent preferences (Simon, 2021; Sen, 2021).

In national security, RCT helps analyse decision-
making by intelligence agencies and threat actors.
It explains the strategic choices of terrorists,
cybercriminals, and organized crime groups
(Enders & Sandler, 2020; Moore et al., 2021;
Varese, 2020). Intelligence agencies use RCT to
optimize operations, prioritize targets, and assess
risks (Johnson, 2021; Clarke & Newman, 2020). In
counterintelligence,

RCT

helps

anticipate

adversaries' actions and protect sensitive
information (Treverton, 2021).

RCT also illuminates the decision-making of
informants and operatives, facilitating effective
intelligence gathering and analysis (Askari et al.,
2019). By understanding actors' incentives and
motivations, agencies can develop strategies to
foster cooperation.

In the Nigerian context, RCT can help analyse the
rational calculations of various actors, such as
policymakers, law enforcement, and extremist
groups (Rahman & Li, 2023). This understanding
can enable the prediction of behaviours,
identification of vulnerabilities, and development
of effective countermeasures.

Recent research emphasizes RCT's significance in
explaining decision consistency and choice
behaviour, particularly in national security and
intelligence contexts (Redd & Mintz, 2013; Ullah &
Mukherjee, 2023).

Empirical Review

The Role of Intelligence in Prosecution and
Conviction

Intelligence plays a crucial role in prosecution and
conviction by providing evidence and insights to
build strong cases against defendants (Clarke &
Newman, 2019). Intelligence analysts collaborate
with prosecutors to develop cases relying on
robust evidence and coherent arguments
(Johnson, 2021). During legal proceedings,
intelligence officers and analysts provide expert
testimony, while witness protection programs
safeguard informants and undercover officers
(Buchanan & Kehoe, 2021; Willis & Mastrofski,
2021).

However, challenges persist. Legal and ethical
considerations surrounding surveillance and
privacy must be addressed to ensure the
admissibility of evidence and maintain public trust
(Fingar, 2021; Treverton, 2021). Additionally,
technological advancements like encryption and
the dark web present challenges for intelligence

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collection, requiring the development of new
methods and tools (Holt et al., 2018; Felbab-
Brown, 2017).

The future of intelligence in law enforcement lies
in

leveraging

technology

and

fostering

collaboration. Investing in AI, machine learning,
and biometrics can enhance predictive policing
and investigative capabilities (Bergen, 2023;
Clarke & Newman, 2019). Strengthening inter-
agency and international cooperation is vital for
combating transnational crime and facilitating
intelligence sharing (Buchanan & Kehoe, 2021;
Sageman, 2017).

Illustrations of Intelligence's Significance

Real-world examples demonstrate the impact of
intelligence in combating crime and ensuring
justice. The apprehension of "El Chapo," the
takedown of the Silk Road, and the investigation of
the 2005 London bombings showcase the
effectiveness of intelligence in diverse scenarios
(Grillo, 2019; Christin, 2013; Clarke & Newman,
2019). Operations like Ghost Click and Trojan
Shield highlight the power of intelligence in
countering cyber threats and organized crime
(Holt et al., 2018; Johnson, 2021).

In Africa, Operation Usalama and the targeting of
Al-Shabaab leaders demonstrate the successful use
of intelligence in combating transnational crime
and terrorism (Burnett & Williams, 2017;
Sageman, 2017). In Nigeria, Operation Puff Adder
and the capture of Boko Haram leader Khalid al-
Barnawi exemplify the effective use of intelligence
in domestic security and counter-insurgency
operations (International Crisis Group, 2020;
Onuoha, 2019). Operation Crocodile Smile and the
Chibok schoolgirls rescue showcase the
importance of intelligence in countering militancy
and hostage situations (Albert, 2021; Onuoha,
2019).

The Nigerian military's campaign, Operation Lafiya

Dole, further demonstrates the effectiveness of a
multi-faceted intelligence approach in combating
Boko Haram (International Crisis Group, 2023).

Intelligence plays a pivotal role in law
enforcement, from crime prevention and
investigation to prosecution and conviction.
Despite challenges, the continuous development
and integration of intelligence techniques, coupled
with enhanced collaboration, are essential for
addressing evolving security threats and ensuring
public safety.

Impact of Intelligence on National Security:
Counterterrorism

To prevent and combat terrorist acts,
counterterrorism heavily depends on intelligence
collection, analysis, and sharing (Byman, 2023).
Intelligence sources, including HUMINT, SIGINT,
and GEOINT, are essential for obtaining
information

regarding

the

strategies,

communications, and locations of terrorist
organizations (Byman, 2023; Treverton, 2021;
Sageman, 2021).

Through network mapping, predictive analysis,
and threat assessment, intelligence analysis
transforms raw data into actionable insights
(Clarke & Newman, 2020). These procedures assist
in the identification and prioritization of potential
threats, the prediction of terrorist activities, and
the comprehension of the structure and support
networks of terrorist organizations (Enders &
Sandler, 2020; Sageman, 2021; Felbab-Brown,
2021).

Seamless intelligence sharing among international
partners and agencies is essential for effective
counterterrorism (Buchanan & Kehoe, 2021;
Sageman, 2021). The timely dissemination of
intelligence

to

policymakers

informs

counterterrorism

strategies

and

resource

allocation (Treverton, 2021), while the provision
of actionable intelligence to security forces enables

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the effective response and disruption of terrorist
activities (Fingar, 2021).

Intelligence Gathering in Nigeria

Since Nigeria transitioned to democracy in 1999,
the country has faced a wide range of security
issues, such as conflicts based on ethnicity and
religion, insurgency and terrorism, banditry,
kidnappings, sabotage of pipelines and illegal oil
extraction, maritime piracy, and militant activities
(Bot, 2023). Both the government and academia
are actively searching for effective solutions to
address the complex security challenge caused by
these attacks. Nevertheless, despite a thorough
investigation into national security concerns, the
impact of intelligence in either intensifying or
alleviating insecurity has been given scant
consideration (Bot, 2023). This academic void
highlights the necessity for a more profound
comprehension of the complex correlation
between intelligence and national security.

The study by Bot (2023) adopts a descriptive and
analytical methodology, utilizing secondary data
collecting to investigate the interdependent
connection between intelligence and national
security in Nigeria. The study aims to explore how
these two factors can either strengthen or weaken
each other. The study indicates that Nigeria's
attempts to build robust intelligence and national
security policies have frequently disregarded the
smaller, larger, and more strategic security issues,
impeding the successful reduction of threats (Bot,
2023). Furthermore, the study highlights that the
lack of effective gathering of comprehensive
intelligence and the delayed response to received
information are significant factors that contribute
to the ongoing violent conflicts in the country (Bot,
2023). This underscores the urgent requirement
for enhanced intelligence gathering and usage
procedures, together with increased collaboration
across intelligence services, to effectively tackle
the complex security problems confronting

Nigeria.

The scope of this research on "Intelligence
Gathering and National Security in Nigeria (2011-
2023)" aligns with the gap in the literature that has
been discovered. Both studies acknowledge the
crucial significance of intelligence in national
security, although they may vary in focus. While
Bot's (2023) work seems to focus on the historical
context and policy implications, this study delves
deeper into the practical aspects of intelligence
gathering and utilization during the specific period
of 2011-2023. It provides a more current and
nuanced perspective, aiming to address the
existing gap in knowledge.

Furthermore, the study conducted by Awotayo et
al. (2023), titled "Intelligence System and National
Security in Nigeria: The Challenges of Data
Gathering," emphasizes the crucial importance of
efficient intelligence in addressing the various
security challenges that Nigeria is confronted with.
These challenges encompass armed robbery,
urban violence, weapon smuggling, kidnapping,
human trafficking, and communal/religious
conflicts. The authors contend that an advanced
intelligence system, with the ability to collect and
analyse data to make precise predictions about
criminal actions, is essential for effectively
addressing these difficulties. Nevertheless, the
present situation exposes a worrisome disparity
between the desired outcome and the actual
effectiveness of governmental, security, and
intelligence

organizations.

These

entities

frequently seem unprepared for militant attacks,
conflicts between herders and farmers, and
tensions arising from ethnic and religious
differences. The study implies that the lack of
preparedness may be associated with faulty or
insufficient intelligence.

The resources and qualitative technique utilize
secondary data sources such as newspapers,
online resources, and published academic works to

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identify a network of complex and linked
difficulties that contribute to the inefficiency of the
Nigerian intelligence system. The issues include
insufficient data, inadequate exploitation of
existing data, and erroneous data. These
challenges are exacerbated by inconsistencies in
data administration and sharing across different
security agencies (Awotayo et al., 2023). The
fragmented approach impedes the prompt and
efficient response to security challenges, rendering
the nation susceptible.

The study emphasizes the necessity of using data-
driven methods in security agencies, together with
improved intelligence sharing between different
agencies, to effectively respond to security threats
and safeguard residents' lives and property
(Awotayo et al., 2023). This highlights the urgent
requirement

for

enhanced

cooperation,

information exchange, and data handling within
the Nigerian intelligence community.

The results drawn from the study of Awotayo et al.
(2023) are consistent with the main objective of
this research, which is to examine "Intelligence
Gathering and National Security in Nigeria (2011-
2023). Both studies accept the crucial significance
of intelligence in tackling Nigeria's complex
security concerns and note the current
shortcomings in the procedures for obtaining and
utilizing intelligence. While Awotayo et al. (2023)
focus mainly on data-related obstacles, this study
examines a wider range of factors that affect the
effectiveness

of

intelligence,

including

coordination, technology, human resources, and
the changing nature of security threats from 2011
to 2023. As a result, it offers a more comprehensive
and up-to-date analysis, addressing a gap in the
existing research.

Similarly, Enyia and colleagues conducted a study,
Enyia., et al (2022) titled "Intelligence Gathering
Imperative: A Tool for Successful Security Outfits'
Operation." The paper focuses on the increasing

security difficulties that both Nigerians and non-
Nigerians experience, which hinder the country's
socio-economic progress. The writers have
identified Boko Haram's operations, attacks by
herdsmen, banditry, kidnapping, and ethno-
religious disputes as significant menaces to
national security. The study seeks to emphasize
the importance of intelligence collection in
preventing crime and investigate efficient
techniques for gathering intelligence to reduce the
impact of these security concerns.

The study's findings indicate that a lack of
coordination in gathering intelligence is a
significant element contributing to Nigeria's
current state of insecurity. In addition, it
emphasizes

the

population's

misguided

allegiances, which frequently give more
importance to ethnoreligious and political factors
rather than national cohesion, hence impeding
intelligence-gathering efforts (Enyia et al., 2022).
The convergence of these difficulties fosters an
environment conducive to insecurity and hinders
the nation's advancement.

Enyia et al. (2022) propose some vital suggestions
to improve intelligence collection and increase
national security. Their proposal entails
augmenting the financial resources and providing
enhanced training for the National Intelligence
Agency (NIA), focusing on the imperative of
adopting contemporary intelligence-gathering
methodologies. The study emphasizes the
significance of inhibiting inter-agency competition
and the politicization of security intelligence,
which is influenced by tribal, ethnic, religious, or
political associations. The authors assert that by
applying these guidelines, intelligence agencies
can enhance their effectiveness in minimizing
security threats and promoting a safer
environment.

The results of Enyia et al. (2022) align with the
central theme of this study on "Intelligence

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Gathering and National Security in Nigeria (2011-
2023). Both studies accept the crucial significance
of intelligence collecting in solving Nigeria's
security concerns and note the current
shortcomings in this area. Enyia et al. (2022) focus
on the general idea of intelligence collecting and its
effects on security, but this thesis specifically
examines the difficulties and complexities between
2011 and 2023.

Moreover, in the paper "Remote Surveillance: A
Means of Intelligence Gathering for Minimizing
Security Challenges in Nigeria," Shehu et al. (2023)
investigate the current state of security
supervision and the escalating national security
threats Nigeria faces. The authors argue that
current security measures have been mostly
ineffectual due to various variables, such as the
advanced use of technology by terrorist groups,
rapid population increase, insufficient social
amenities, and other contributing elements.
Therefore, it is necessary to shift towards digital
intelligence collecting to manage security
effectively.

The study employs a methodological approach
based on secondary data analysis, examining pre-
existing national security initiatives and the wider
idea of surveillance. In addition, a thorough
examination of existing literature provides the
basis for their recommended remedies. This paper
provides a methodology for collecting digital
intelligence that combines remote monitoring,
wiretapping, geospatial intelligence, and a
centralized national database. This comprehensive
approach seeks to utilize technology progress to
improve intelligence collection and efficiently
address Nigeria's diverse security concerns.

Shehu et al. (2023) recommend implementing a
digital intelligence collection method to enhance
security management in Nigeria. This approach
acknowledges the constraints of conventional
security methods and the necessity to adjust to the

changing strategies of malicious individuals.
Although the study offers valuable insights into the
potential of technological solutions, it does not
thoroughly examine the root causes of the current
security challenges or provide a comprehensive
analysis of the various factors that influence
intelligence effectiveness between 2011 and 2023.
This limitation emphasizes a potential disparity
between the emphasis on technology solutions in
Shehu et al.'s (2023) study and the more
comprehensive investigation of intelligence
collecting and national security in Nigeria during
this time in your research.

Although both studies recognize the crucial
significance of improving intelligence collection to
tackle Nigeria's security concerns, they vary in
scope and emphasis. Shehu et al. (2023) focus
mainly on technological solutions, while this study
considers a broader range of factors that affect the
effectiveness of intelligence, such as inter-agency
coordination, human resource development, legal
frameworks, and the changing nature of security
threats from 2011 to 2023. This larger viewpoint
provides a more thorough comprehension of the
intricacies and subtleties of intelligence collection
and its influence on national security within a
certain period, thus bridging a gap and adding to
the existing literature on the subject under review.

The emergence of security threats in Nigeria can be
attributed to a complex interplay of political,
economic, and social factors. Politically, the
country grapples with challenges stemming from
separatist movements, ethnic militias, and the
persistent Boko Haram insurgency (Olaniyan &
Yahaya, 2023; International Crisis Group, 2023).
Economically, issues such as endemic corruption,
unequal resource distribution, and persistent
poverty create a fertile ground for discontent and
insecurity (World Bank, 2023). Socially, the
nation's rich ethnic diversity, coupled with
historical grievances and persistent social

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inequalities, further exacerbate security threats,
often leading to ethnic crises and violence (Onuoha
& Ugwu, 2023). These factors, intertwined with
political opportunism and a lack of effective
governance, create a volatile and multifaceted
security landscape that profoundly impacts the
lives of Nigerian citizens and impedes socio-
economic development (International Crisis
Group, 2023; World Bank, 2023; Olaniyan &
Yahaya, 2023; Onuoha & Ugwu, 2023).

Meanwhile, Nnordee et al. (2024) emphasize the
negative consequences of increasing insecurity on
Nigeria's economic advancement in their research
titled "Security Challenges and Economic
Development in Emerging Economies: The Nigeria
Experience." The writers enumerate many security
risks, including militancy, kidnapping, armed
robbery, political assassination, ritual killings, and
the Boko Haram insurgency. These widespread
difficulties generate a climate of apprehension and
doubt, impeding significant socio-economic
progress and discouraging both local and
international investment.

Although the study's methodology is not explicitly
mentioned, it seems to be based on a thorough
examination of current literature and statistics
regarding the relationship between security
challenges and economic progress in Nigeria. By
conducting this analysis, the authors demonstrate
a distinct association between the increase in
insecurity and the decrease in economic indices.
They stress the immediate need for decisive
actions to tackle these difficulties and promote a
secure

atmosphere

supporting

economic

expansion.

While Nnordee et al. (2024) suggest a
comprehensive strategy to address the security
dilemma and foster economic growth. They
promote proactive community policing techniques
to improve security at the local level while
simultaneously emphasizing the significance of

human capital development to provide individuals
with the required skills and knowledge for
economic engagement. The authors suggest that
resources should be distributed fairly and
strategically allocated to critical areas of the
economy to promote sustainable growth.
Additionally, they underscore the necessity of
tailored interventions to tackle the situation
between Fulani herdsmen and farmers, focusing
on conflict resolution and training initiatives to
foster harmonious cohabitation and sustainable
farming methods. Ultimately, the study highlights
the importance of proficient leadership and sound
governance in tackling the underlying insecurity
factors and promoting a favourable atmosphere
for socio-economic progress.

Although Nnordee et al. (2024) provide useful
insights into the correlation between security
concerns and economic progress in Nigeria, their
analysis may have a possible weakness. The study
primarily proposes policy solutions to mitigate
insecurity and foster economic growth, focusing
little on the precise function of intelligence
collecting in tackling these difficulties. In contrast,
the study titled "Intelligence Gathering and
National Security in Nigeria (2011-2023)" is
expected to explore the intricacies of collecting,
analyzing, and utilizing intelligence within a
particular time.

Both studies recognize the harmful influence of
security risks on Nigeria's development and
stability, emphasizing the pressing requirement
for efficient remedies. This study examines various
factors that impact the effectiveness of
intelligence, such as technological limitations,
coordination between agencies, and the changing
nature of security threats from 2011 to 2023. It
provides a more detailed and comprehensive view
of the challenges and opportunities that Nigeria's
intelligence system faces.

Similarly, Stephen et al. (2024) explore the

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fluctuating nature of insecurity in Nigeria in their
paper titled "Changing Insecurity Threats in
Nigeria from 1999-2021." They analyse the
progression of threats following the restoration of
democratic governance and their significant
influence on human security. The report highlights
many security concerns that are widespread
across Nigeria's six geopolitical zones, such as
kidnapping, insurgency, separatist movements,
Boko Haram activities, and the ongoing conflict
between herders and farmers. According to the
authors, these risks have greatly weakened human
security, which includes physical safety, economic
prosperity, and social unity.

The research questions the current dependence
on conventional security methods, arguing that a
more inclusive framework considering human and
societal security factors is essential for efficiently
dealing with Nigeria's intricate security
environment. The study uses Elite Theory and
Relative Deprivation Theory to examine the
underlying reasons for insecurity concerns. It
emphasizes poverty, inequality, marginalization,
and political manipulation. The authors suggest a
composite approach highlighting the shared
accountability of several stakeholders in
addressing insecurity, such as the government,
religious groups, commercial organizations, and
civil society.

The study concluded by providing a set of
recommendations that are intended to mitigate
insecurity issues and promote a safer environment
in Nigeria. The recommendations include
enhancing good governance and democratic
principles, offering extensive training for security
personnel, allocating resources to critical sectors
such as agriculture, health, and education, and
organizing a nationwide referendum to address
fundamental

issues

threatening

peaceful

coexistence. Moreover, the authors emphasize the
significance of involving specialists in peace and

conflict resolution to address the ongoing conflict
between herders and farmers. They also
recommend implementing ranching techniques for
cattle breeding and providing suitable training for
herdsmen. The study highlights the crucial need
for competent leadership and sound governance in
tackling the complex issues of insecurity,
unemployment, poverty, and other unfavourable
indicators afflicting Nigeria.

This study is consistent with the "Intelligence
Gathering and National Security in Nigeria (2011-
2023)" research in acknowledging the complex
nature of security threats and the insufficiency of
depending exclusively on conventional security
methods. Both stress the importance of tackling
the underlying reasons for insecurity, such as
socio-economic

and

political

elements.

Nevertheless, Stephen et al.'s (2024) research
lacks a comprehensive examination of security
from a wider perspective, including multiple
stakeholders. In contrast, this study specifically
investigates the significance of intelligence
gathering and utilization from 2011 to 2023.

Moreover, O., I., Sarafa, et al. (2024) explore the
complex correlation between political economics
and the widespread insecurity afflicting Nigeria.
The authors use a qualitative research approach
based on documentary sources. They assess the
complex character of current insecurity in the
country by applying a political economics
perspective and game theoretic modelling.

Their research reveals a troubling situation: the
Nigerian government is facing numerous internal
security challenges, including separatist groups,
ethnic militias, terrorism, cattle theft, abduction
for ransom, armed banditry, and armed robbery.
The widespread insecurity has created a climate of
fear and concern among the people, which has
significant consequences for the country's social
and economic progress and its reputation in the
global arena.

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The report highlights the destructive impact of
corruption and inadequate governance, identifying
these elements as key catalysts of the ongoing
security problem. The authors comprehensively
explain the underlying reasons for insecurity in
Nigeria by examining the complex relationship
between political and economic factors.

METHODOLOGY

The study predominantly employs a qualitative
research methodology, relying heavily on critical
assessment and secondary data to investigate the
intricate role of intelligence in Nigeria's national
security. The research design entails a
comprehensive literature review to evaluate the
existing scholarly work on intelligence and
national security in the Nigerian context. This
method enables a comprehensive examination of
the subject's complexities and subtleties, utilizing
the insights and discoveries of prior research.

The researcher was able to collect a diverse array
of perspectives and information on the subject by
relying on secondary data, including reports,
articles, and policy documents. The methodology's
critical assessment component entails a
meticulous assessment and interpretation of this
data, which identifies the primary themes,
challenges, and successes of intelligence
operations. The qualitative nature of the research
is further emphasized by the study's emphasis on
policy

recommendations,

evaluation,

and

interpretation. By synthesizing and analyzing
existing knowledge, the study endeavours to offer
policymakers and practitioners actionable insights
and to provide a comprehensive comprehension of
the role of intelligence in Nigeria's national
security.

RESULTS

The study's examination of the role of intelligence
in Nigeria's national security from 2011 to 2023
exposes a multifaceted and intricate landscape.

The efficacy of intelligence agencies in the
collection, analysis, and dissemination of
information has been inconsistent, characterized
by both significant accomplishments and ongoing
obstacles. The research emphasizes the critical
role of intelligence in the prevention of a variety of
security threats, such as terrorism, insurgency,
banditry, and cybercrime. Nevertheless, it also
underscores the constraints and impediments that
intelligence agencies encounter to fulfil their
responsibilities.

The literature evaluation conducted in the study
demonstrates that scholars and practitioners have
reached a consensus regarding the critical role of
intelligence in ensuring national security. It is
essential to have the capacity to collect precise and
timely information regarding the intentions,
capabilities, operations, and capabilities of threat
actors to make informed decisions and implement
effective countermeasures. The study's results are
consistent with this viewpoint, as they illustrate
the influence of intelligence on a variety of security
operations, including the successful targeting of
Boko Haram leaders and the disruption of criminal
networks.

Nevertheless, the investigation also identifies
substantial obstacles that have impeded the
efficacy of intelligence operations in Nigeria.
Intelligence gaps and operational limitations have
been exacerbated by the evolving nature of
security threats, inadequate funding and
technology, and inter-agency rivalry. The results of
the study are consistent with the apprehensions
expressed by scholars such as Olaniyan and Yahaya
(2023), who underscore the necessity of enhanced
coordination and resource allocation to develop
intelligence capabilities.

The examination of specific security challenges,
including the Boko Haram insurgency, armed
banditry, and cybercrime, in the study exposes the
complexities and limitations of intelligence in

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addressing these threats. A sophisticated and
multifaceted intelligence response is required due
to the adaptive nature of these challenges and the
involvement of transnational networks and non-
state actors. The research results corroborate the
arguments of experts such as Onuoha (2019) and
Adewale and Adeniran (2023), who emphasize the
necessity of technological advancements and
innovative approaches to effectively address these
evolving threats.

The significance of addressing the underlying
socio-economic and political factors that
contribute to conflict and instability is further
emphasized by the study's emphasis on the
primary causes of insecurity, including poverty,
inequality, and political manipulation. The
research results are consistent with the viewpoints
of scholars such as Onuoha and Ugwu (2023) and
International Crisis Group (2023), who underscore
the necessity of a comprehensive strategy that
integrates socio-economic development, sound
governance, and intelligence-led operations.

The results of the study provide a complex
depiction of the function of intelligence in the
national security of Nigeria. The effectiveness of
intelligence in combating security threats has been
limited by a variety of challenges, despite its
critical function. To establish sustainable peace
and stability in Nigeria, the study's results
underscore the necessity of ongoing investment in
intelligence capabilities, enhanced coordination
among agencies, and a concentrated effort to
address the underlying causes of insecurity.

DISCUSSION

The results of the study emphasize the crucial
importance of intelligence in Nigeria's national
security environment, showcasing both the
possibilities and the difficulties involved in its
implementation. The efficiency of intelligence
collection and application has been hindered by
various

elements,

such

as

inter-agency

competition, insufficient financial resources and
technology, and the dynamic character of security
risks. For example, the Boko Haram insurgency has
revealed the constraints of intelligence in
forecasting and thwarting intricate and highly
adaptable dangers. The group's adeptness at
adapting its strategies and capitalizing on local
grievances has frequently surpassed the
intelligence community's capability to efficiently
collect and analyse information.

Inter-Agency Rivalry

Competition for resources and a lack of trust can
fuel inter-agency rivalry, hindering collaboration
and information sharing (Johnson, 2021;
Treverton, 2021; Fingar, 2021).

Communication Barriers

Technological incompatibilities, cybersecurity
concerns, and bureaucratic hurdles create
communication barriers, delaying intelligence
dissemination

and

impacting

operational

efficiency (Johnson, 2021; Holt et al., 2021;
Treverton, 2021; Clarke & Newman, 2020).

Jurisdictional Issues

Overlapping authorities and differing legal
frameworks can lead to conflicts over jurisdiction
and hinder information sharing and joint
operations, particularly in foreign intelligence
cooperation (Buchanan & Kehoe, 2021; Johnson,
2021; Holt et al., 2021; Fingar, 2021).

Differences in Organizational Culture

Varying operational philosophies, intelligence
methodologies, and professional rivalries can
create friction and impede coordination among
agencies (Johnson, 2021; Clarke & Newman, 2020;
Buchanan & Kehoe, 2021; Fingar, 2021).

Infrastructural Challenges

Limited resources, inadequate technology, and a
lack of skilled personnel pose significant obstacles
to intelligence operations, hindering effective

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threat monitoring and response (Olaniyan &
Yahaya, 2023; Johnson, 2021; Treverton, 2021;
Fingar, 2021; Clarke & Newman, 2020; Buchanan
& Kehoe, 2021).

Technological Advancements

Rapid technological progress presents both
opportunities and challenges. Intelligence agencies
must adapt to new technologies, address
cybersecurity risks, manage vast amounts of data,
and invest in ongoing training and development to
remain effective (Betts, 2020; Treverton, 2021;
Johnson, 2021; Fingar, 2021; Holt et al., 2021;
Clarke & Newman, 2020; Buchanan & Kehoe,
2021).

Furthermore, the study exposes the enduring
difficulties presented by armed banditry, oil theft,
and cybercrime. These risks, frequently
interconnected with corruption and organized
crime, necessitate a rigorous intelligence response
that

surpasses

conventional

approaches.

Insufficient finances and technological capabilities
have impeded the capacity of intelligence agencies
to systematically monitor and dismantle these
criminal networks. In addition, the study's results
underscore the need to tackle the fundamental
factors contributing to insecurity, such as poverty,
inequality, and political manipulation. The
intricate interaction of these elements provides an
ideal environment for the development and
perpetuation of security risks. This paper contends
that a holistic strategy that integrates intelligence-
driven

operations

with

socio-economic

development and effective governance is crucial
for attaining enduring peace and security in
Nigeria.

The research findings are consistent with the
wider div of knowledge on intelligence and
national security, emphasizing the difficulties and
possibilities encountered by intelligence services
in intricate and ever-changing contexts. The study
highlights

the

importance

of

enhancing

coordination, implementing technology progress,
and prioritizing human security, which aligns with
the suggestions made by experts and practitioners
in the sector (Olaniyan & Yahaya, 2023;
International Crisis Group, 2023; Onuoha & Ugwu,
2023). The study's rigorous evaluation of the
function of intelligence in Nigeria's national
security offers significant perspectives for
policymakers, security agencies, and academics, so
complementing the continuous discussion on
successful approaches to address insecurity and
foster sustainable development in the country

The research results provide a sophisticated
elucidation of the function of intelligence in the
national security of Nigeria.

CONCLUSION

This study has conducted a critical examination of
the role of intelligence in Nigeria's national
security from 2011 to 2023, emphasizing both its
ongoing challenges and essential contributions.
The research has demonstrated that intelligence
operations are indispensable in the fight against
terrorism, insurgency, banditry, and cybercrime.
However, there are substantial deficiencies in the
effective

integration

of

community-based

intelligence,

technological

adoption,

and

interagency collaboration.

The absence of exhaustive research on the effective
utilization of intelligence within Nigeria's security
framework, particularly to non-traditional threats
like organized crime and cybercrime, is a critical
gap that this study has identified and addressed.
This research offers a more sophisticated
comprehension of how intelligence contributes to
national security outcomes in Nigeria by
emphasizing the practical aspects of intelligence
collection and utilization. Additionally, the
investigation has investigated the understudied
domain of local knowledge and community
engagement in intelligence operations, providing
valuable insights into the more effective

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integration of grassroots-level intelligence into
national security strategies.

This study makes a dual contribution to the field of
national security and intelligence. Initially, it offers
a comprehensive evaluation of Nigeria's
intelligence infrastructure during a critical period,
providing practical suggestions to improve its
efficiency. Secondly, the research broadens the
academic discourse by examining the intersection
of intelligence operations and socio-economic
factors, illustrating that it is necessary to address
the underlying causes of instability, including
poverty, unemployment, and inequality, to achieve
long-term security.

Conclusively, this study emphasizes the necessity
of a comprehensive and coordinated strategy that
encompasses

contemporary

technological

solutions,

enhanced

human

intelligence

(HUMINT), and a strong emphasis on socio-
economic development, although intelligence
continues to be a fundamental component of
Nigeria's national security. This study contributes
to the academic understanding of intelligence
practices in Nigeria and the practical efforts to
improve national security outcomes by bridging
critical voids in the literature and offering
actionable recommendations.

Recommendations

To effectively address Nigeria's national security
challenges, this study emphasizes the following
recommendations, drawn from an in-depth
assessment of intelligence practices from 2011 to
2023:

Strengthening Inter-Agency Collaboration

: The

lack of coordination between Nigeria’s intelligence

agencies has significantly hampered the
effectiveness of national security operations. It is
imperative to establish a centralized intelligence
framework

that

encourages

seamless

communication and data sharing among agencies

such as the Department of State Services (DSS), the
Nigerian Police Force (NPF), and the Nigerian
Armed Forces. This could be achieved through an
integrated intelligence database that provides
real-time access to shared data, thereby enhancing
operational efficiency and strategic planning.

Investment in Technological Advancements

:

The dynamic nature of security threats, including
terrorism, banditry, and cybercrime, necessitates
the adoption of advanced technological tools.
Investment in digital surveillance, geospatial
intelligence

(GEOINT),

and

cybersecurity

measures should be prioritized. These tools can

significantly improve Nigeria’s capacity to monitor

and counteract sophisticated threats posed by
both local and transnational actors.

Human Intelligence (HUMINT) and Community
Engagement

:

Despite

technological

advancements, Human Intelligence remains
critical in the Nigerian context due to the complex
socio-political environment. Intelligence agencies
should enhance their HUMINT capabilities by
fostering relationships with local communities and
utilizing their knowledge to gather actionable
intelligence. This approach, coupled with
community policing initiatives, could substantially
improve grassroots-level intelligence gathering
and crisis management.

Capacity Building and Training

: Continuous

training for intelligence officers on emerging
threats, ethical intelligence gathering, and the use
of modern technological tools is crucial. Agencies
should also focus on retaining skilled personnel to
reduce turnover rates, which can negatively
impact intelligence continuity and efficiency.

Addressing Socio-Economic Root Causes of
Insecurity

: Long-term security solutions must

involve addressing the socio-economic factors that
fuel insecurity. Strategies that promote economic
development, education, and employment in
vulnerable regions are essential in mitigating the

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drivers of radicalization, banditry, and insurgency.
This integrated approach, which links security
with development, can contribute to sustainable
peace.

By implementing these recommendations, Nigeria
can strengthen its intelligence framework,
enhance inter-agency collaboration, and address
the evolving security challenges more effectively.

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