SYNERGY IN SECURITY: EVALUATING THE EFFICACY OF COLLABORATIVE STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY THE ARMED FORCES OF NIGERIA IN COUNTERING VIOLENT EXTREMISM

Okwudiwa Gogogwute; Dr. M. O. Musa

doi:10.37547/tajiir/Volume06Issue11-06

Authors

Okwudiwa Gogogwute
PhD Student City University, Cambodia
Dr. M. O. Musa
Department of Cybersecurity, Faculty of Computing, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.37547/tajiir/Volume06Issue11-06

Keywords:

Synergy in Security Collaborative Strategies Armed Forces of Nigeria

Abstract

In the face of evolving security threats, the Armed Forces of Nigeria (AFN) stand at a critical juncture, where the echoes of gunfire meet the whispers of diplomacy. This study delves into the heart of Nigeria's counter-extremism efforts, examining the AFN's journey from traditional military approaches to a symphony of collaborative strategies. Through an extensive literature review, the study unravels the tapestry of stakeholder engagement woven by the AFN in their quest to combat violent extremism. This research navigates the complex terrain of Nigeria's security landscape, exploring how the AFN has transformed from a lone sentinel to a conductor of a diverse orchestra of stakeholders. It analyses key initiatives such as the National Security Strategy and the National Action Plan for Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism, viewing them as scores that guide this intricate performance of national security. The study reveals a narrative of progress punctuated by persistent challenges. It found that while the AFN has successfully harmonized efforts with civil society, religious leaders, and international partners, discordant notes of mistrust and resource constraints continue to resonate. The analysis uncovers the delicate balance the AFN must maintain – striking a chord between military might and community engagement, between national sovereignty and international collaboration. Emerging from our review is a portrait of an armed force in transition, learning to wield soft power alongside hard power. The study identifies innovative practices where the AFN has successfully bridged divides, creating unexpected alliances in the fight against extremism. However, we also highlight the unfinished symphony – areas where the collaboration falls short of its potential. This study contributes to the growing body of literature on military transformation in the face of asymmetric threats. By examining the AFN's collaborative strategies, it provides insights applicable not only to Nigeria but to armed forces globally grappling with similar security challenges. As the AFN continues to compose its response to violent extremism, this research offers both a reflection on its current performance and a prelude to future harmonies in national security efforts.

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PUBLISHED DATE: - 04-11-2024
DOI: -

https://doi.org/10.37547/tajiir/Volume06Issue11-06

PAGE NO.: - 72-96

SYNERGY IN SECURITY: EVALUATING THE
EFFICACY OF COLLABORATIVE STRATEGIES
EMPLOYED BY THE ARMED FORCES OF
NIGERIA IN COUNTERING VIOLENT
EXTREMISM

Okwudiwa Gogogwute

PhD Student City University, Cambodia

Dr. M. O. Musa

Department of Cybersecurity, Faculty of Computing, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Open Access

Abstract

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INTRODUCTION

The landscape of national security has undergone
a profound transformation in the 21st century,
necessitating

a

shift

from

traditional,

compartmentalized

approaches

to

more

collaborative and inclusive strategies. This
evolution is particularly evident in the realm of
counter-extremism, where the complex nature of
threats demands innovative solutions. The Global
Terrorism Index 2023 highlights this changing
paradigm, reporting a 9% decrease in terrorism-
related deaths globally, yet an increase in the
number of countries experiencing attacks
(Institute for Economics & Peace, 2023). This
paradoxical trend underscores the need for
adaptive and cooperative approaches to security
challenges. Historically, national security was
viewed primarily as the purview of government
agencies, particularly military and intelligence
organizations. However, recent decades have
witnessed a significant shift in this perspective.
The recognition that security threats, especially
those related to extremism, are often deeply
rooted in social, economic, and political factors has
led to a more holistic understanding of security
(Crelinsten, 2021). This evolving viewpoint has
paved the way for the involvement of a broader
range of stakeholders in national security efforts.

several countries have implemented innovative
strategies to engage diverse stakeholders in
enhancing national security. In the United States,
the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has
been at the forefront of promoting a "whole-of-
society" approach to countering violent
extremism. The DHS's Office for Targeted Violence
and Terrorism Prevention (OTVTP) collaborates
closely with local communities, non-governmental
organizations, and the private sector to develop
and implement prevention programs (U.S.
Department of Homeland Security, 2022). This
collaborative model has shown promise in

addressing the root causes of extremism and
fostering community resilience.

The United Kingdom has also embraced a multi-
stakeholder approach through its CONTEST
counter-terrorism strategy.

The strategy's

'Prevent' pillar focuses on stopping people from
becoming terrorists or supporting terrorism and
involves collaboration between government
agencies, local authorities, and community
organizations (HM Government, 2018). This
approach has led to the establishment of local
Prevent partnerships across the country,
facilitating information sharing and coordinated
interventions. Australia's Living Safe Together
program exemplifies another collaborative
approach to countering violent extremism. The
initiative brings together government agencies,
community groups, and individuals to build
community resilience and support those at risk of
radicalization (Australian Government, 2020). By
fostering partnerships and sharing resources, the
program aims to create a more comprehensive and
effective response to extremism.

Empirical evidence supports the effectiveness of
collaborative approaches. A study by Stephens et
al. (2019) found that multi-agency partnerships in
counter-extremism efforts led to improved
information

sharing,

better-coordinated

interventions, and more comprehensive support
for at-risk individuals. Similarly, research by
Vermeulen (2020) highlighted the positive impact
of community engagement in preventing
radicalization, noting that such approaches can
enhance trust between communities and
authorities, thereby improving the overall
effectiveness of counter- extremism strategies.
However, implementing collaborative approaches
is not without challenges. Issues such as
information sharing barriers, conflicting priorities
among stakeholders, and the need for clear

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governance structures can impede effective
collaboration (Cherney and Hartley, 2017).
Addressing these challenges requires careful
planning, clear communication, and a commitment
to shared goals among all involved parties.

In the context of Nigeria, the need for collaborative
approaches to national security is particularly
acute. The country faces a complex array of
security challenges, including the ongoing
insurgency by Boko Haram and its offshoots, inter-
communal conflicts, and separatist movements.
According to the Nigeria Security Tracker, over
57,000 people have died in violence related to
Boko Haram alone since 2011 (Council on Foreign
Relations, 2023). These multifaceted threats
underscore the necessity for a more inclusive and
comprehensive approach to national security.
Nigeria has made some strides in adopting
collaborative strategies for national security. The
National Counter Terrorism Strategy (NACTEST),
revised in 2016, emphasizes the importance of a
whole-of- society approach in combating terrorism
and extremism (Office of the National Security
Adviser, 2016). The strategy calls for increased
cooperation between government agencies, civil
society organizations, and local communities in
prevention, preparedness, and response efforts.

The federal government's efforts to address these
multifaceted security challenges have included
military operations, policy initiatives, and
attempts at stakeholder engagement. However,
these efforts have often been criticized for being
reactive rather than proactive, and for failing to
adequately engage local communities and other
key stakeholders (Tar and Bala, 2022). The
National Security Strategy (NSS) of 2019
represents a shift towards a more comprehensive
approach to security, acknowledging the need for
multi-stakeholder

collaboration.

However,

implementation challenges persist, particularly in
harmonizing efforts across different levels of

government and between state and non-state
actors (Office of the National Security Adviser,
2019). Therefore, Nigeria's security challenges,
while daunting, also present an opportunity for
innovative, collaborative approaches to national
security. By fostering genuine stakeholder
engagement, addressing root causes, and
leveraging diverse expertise and resources,
Nigeria can work towards a more secure and stable
future. The success of these efforts will have
significant implications not just for Nigeria, but for
regional and global security as well.

One of the primary issues driving this research is
the persistent reliance on traditional, state-centric
approaches to national security, which often fail to
address the root causes of extremism and violent
conflicts. Akpan and Ekanem (2021) argue that
this over-reliance on military solutions has proven
inadequate in addressing Nigeria's security
challenges, with the Boko Haram insurgency
continuing to pose a significant threat despite
years of military intervention. The Global
Terrorism Index 2023 reports that Nigeria
remains one of the countries most impacted by
terrorism, ranking 8th globally (Institute for
Economics & Peace, 2023). This underscores the
need for a more comprehensive and collaborative
approach to security. Furthermore, Adeola and
Oluyemi (2022) highlight that the military-centric
approach has led to the alienation of local
communities, potentially exacerbating the security
situation. The purpose of this paper is therefore to
anayse the current collaborative engagement that
the Armed Forces of Nigeria (AFN) utilised in
ensuring enhanced national security in Nigeria.

Current Stakeholder Engagement in Nigeria's
National Security Efforts: A Focus on Counter-
Extremism Strategies

The complex security landscape in Nigeria,
characterized by persistent threats from extremist
groups such as Boko Haram and the Islamic State

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West Africa Province (ISWAP), has necessitated a
multifaceted approach to national security. Central
to this approach is the engagement of various
stakeholders in counter-extremism strategies.
This section critically examines the current state of
stakeholder engagement in Nigeria's national
security efforts, with a particular emphasis on
counter-extremism strategies.

Stakeholder engagement in Nigeria's counter-
extremism efforts involves a wide range of actors,
including government agencies, civil society
organizations, religious leaders, traditional rulers,
international partners, and local communities. The
Nigerian government has recognized the
importance of a comprehensive approach that goes
beyond military interventions to address the root
causes of extremism (Akinola, 2022). This
recognition has led to the development of various
initiatives aimed at fostering collaboration
between different stakeholders. One of the key
stakeholders in Nigeria's counter-extremism
efforts is the Office of the National Security Adviser
(ONSA). In 2014, ONSA launched the Countering
Violent Extremism (CVE) program, which aims to
prevent

radicalization

and

promote

deradicalization through a whole-of-society
approach (Oyewole, 2020). The program
emphasizes the importance of engaging civil
society organizations, religious leaders, and local
communities in countering extremist narratives
and addressing socio- economic grievances that
fuel radicalization.

The involvement of civil society organizations
(CSOs) in Nigeria's counter-extremism strategies
has been significant. CSOs play a crucial role in
bridging the gap between the government and
local communities, facilitating dialogue, and
implementing grassroots initiatives. According to a
study by Olojo (2019), CSOs have been
instrumental in promoting peace education,
interfaith dialogue, and youth empowerment

programs in vulnerable communities across
Nigeria. However, the study also highlights
challenges faced by CSOs, including limited
funding, security risks, and sometimes strained
relationships with government agencies. Religious
leaders have emerged as important stakeholders
in Nigeria's counter-extremism efforts, given the
religious dimensions of extremist ideologies
propagated by groups like Boko Haram. Adegbulu
(2021) notes that both Muslim and Christian
leaders have been involved in interfaith initiatives
aimed at promoting religious tolerance and
countering extremist narratives. For instance, the
Nigeria Inter-Religious Council (NIREC) has been
actively engaged in promoting dialogue between
Muslim and Christian communities and advising
the government on religious aspects of counter-
extremism strategies.

Traditional rulers and community leaders also
play a significant role in Nigeria's counter-
extremism efforts. These stakeholders often have
deep-rooted influence in their communities and
can serve as crucial intermediaries between the
government and local populations. A study by
Ibrahim and Bala (2020) found that traditional
rulers in northeastern Nigeria have been involved
in early warning systems, conflict resolution
mechanisms, and reintegration programs for
former extremists. However, the authors also
highlight the need for more structured
engagement and capacity building for these local
leaders.

International

partners

constitute

another

important group of stakeholders in Nigeria's
counter- extremism strategies. Countries such as
the US, UK, and France have provided technical
assistance, training, and financial support for
Nigeria's counter-extremism efforts. For example,
the Global Community Engagement and Resilience
Fund (GCERF) has supported community-led
initiatives in Nigeria aimed at preventing violent

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extremism (GCERF, 2022). While international
support has been valuable, some critics argue that
it sometimes lacks contextual understanding and
may inadvertently reinforce problematic power
dynamics (Olojo, 2020).

The engagement of local communities in counter-
extremism strategies is perhaps one of the most
critical aspects of stakeholder involvement.
Communities affected by extremist violence are
not merely passive recipients of security
interventions but active participants in shaping
and implementing counter-extremism initiatives.
Akinola and Uzodike (2020) argue that community
engagement is essential for building trust,
gathering intelligence, and developing context-
specific interventions. Their study of community
policing initiatives in Borno State revealed that
when local communities are actively involved in
security efforts, there is improved information
sharing and better cooperation with security
agencies.

Despite the recognition of the importance of
stakeholder engagement, significant challenges
remain in Nigeria's counter-extremism efforts. One
major issue is the lack of coordination among
various stakeholders. Ademowo (2021) points out
that there is often duplication of efforts and poor
information

sharing

between

government

agencies, CSOs, and international partners. This
lack of coordination can lead to inefficient use of
resources and potentially conflicting approaches
to counter-extremism.

Another challenge is the issue of trust between
stakeholders,

particularly

between

local

communities and security agencies. Years of
human rights abuses and heavy-handed military
operations have eroded trust in many conflict-
affected areas. A survey conducted by the Center
for Democracy and Development (2021) found
that only 32% of respondents in northeastern
Nigeria expressed trust in the military's ability to

protect them from extremist groups. Rebuilding
this trust is crucial for effective stakeholder
engagement in counter-extremism efforts.

The inclusivity of stakeholder engagement
processes is also a matter of concern. Women and
youth, who are often disproportionately affected
by

extremist

violence,

are

frequently

underrepresented in decision-making processes
related to counter-extremism strategies. Oluwole
(2023) argues that the exclusion of these groups
not only undermines the effectiveness of counter-
extremism efforts but also reinforces existing
inequalities that can fuel extremism. Furthermore,
the sustainability of stakeholder engagement
initiatives remains a challenge. Many programs
rely heavily on external funding and may struggle
to maintain momentum once funding cycles end.
Akinola (2022) emphasizes the need for more
locally-driven and sustainable approaches to
stakeholder engagement in counter-extremism
efforts.

In terms of the effectiveness of current stakeholder
engagement efforts, the evidence is mixed. While
there have been some notable successes, such as
the surrender of thousands of Boko Haram fighters
in 2021 (International Crisis Group, 2022),
extremist violence continues to pose a significant
threat in parts of Nigeria. A report by the United
Nations

Development

Programme

(2023)

indicates that while deaths from extremist
violence in Nigeria have decreased from their peak
in 2014-2015, the geographic spread of attacks has
widened, suggesting the need for more
comprehensive

and

adaptive

stakeholder

engagement strategies.

Statistics from the Nigeria Security Tracker
(Council on Foreign Relations, 2023) show that
between January 2018 and December 2022, there
were over 30,000 deaths related to the Boko
Haram insurgency and other forms of extremist
violence in Nigeria. This underscores the ongoing

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severity of the threat and the need for continued
and enhanced stakeholder engagement in counter-
extremism efforts. To improve stakeholder
engagement in Nigeria's counter-extremism
strategies, several recommendations have been
proposed by researchers and practitioners.
Onapajo (2021) suggests the establishment of a
national coordination mechanism for counter-
extremism efforts that would bring together
representatives from various stakeholder groups.
This could help address the current fragmentation
and improve information sharing.

Oluwole (2023) recommends the development of
more inclusive stakeholder engagement processes,
with particular emphasis on increasing the
meaningful participation of women and youth in
decision-making related to counter-extremism
strategies. This could involve setting quotas for
representation in relevant committees and task
forces, as well as creating dedicated platforms for
these groups to contribute their perspectives and
experiences.

Ademowo (2021) emphasizes the importance of
capacity building for local stakeholders, including
CSOs, religious leaders, and traditional rulers. This
could involve training in conflict resolution, early
warning

systems,

and

community-based

approaches to preventing violent extremism.
Lastly, there is a need for more rigorous
monitoring and evaluation of stakeholder
engagement initiatives in counter-extremism
efforts. Oyewole (2020) argues that better data
collection and analysis could help identify best
practices, assess the impact of different
approaches,

and

inform

evidence-based

policymaking.

While Nigeria has made significant strides in
engaging various stakeholders in its counter-
extremism strategies, there is still considerable
room for improvement. The current state of
stakeholder engagement is characterized by a

recognition of its importance, diverse initiatives
involving multiple actors, but also challenges
related to coordination, trust, inclusivity, and
sustainability. Moving forward, addressing these
challenges

and

implementing

the

recommendations proposed by researchers and
practitioners will be crucial for enhancing the
effectiveness of Nigeria's counter-extremism
efforts. As the threat of extremism continues to
evolve, so too must the approaches to stakeholder
engagement, ensuring that they remain adaptive,
inclusive, and responsive to the needs and realities
of affected communities.

The collaborative engagements are discussed as
follow;

a.

Operation Lafiya Dole and Operation

Hadin Kai.

Operation Lafiya Dole and Operation

Hadin Kai represent significant military initiatives
launched by the Nigerian government to combat
violent extremism, particularly the threats posed
by Boko Haram and the Islamic State West Africa
Province (ISWAP) in northeastern Nigeria.
Operation Lafiya Dole, meaning "Peace by Force" in
Hausa, was initiated in 2015 under the leadership
of Lieutenant General Tukur Buratai. This
operation replaced the previous Joint Task Force
Operation Restore Order and aimed to degrade
and ultimately defeat Boko Haram through
coordinated military action (Onuoha and Oyewole,
2018; Bamidele, 2016).

In April 2021, Operation Lafiya Dole transitioned
to Operation Hadin Kai, which translates to
"Cooperation" in Hausa. This change signaled a
shift in strategy, emphasizing increased
collaboration between the military and other
security agencies, as well as greater engagement
with local communities. The transition was partly
in response to the evolving nature of security
threats and the recognition of the need for a more
comprehensive and coordinated effort (Olaniyan
and Akpan, 2022).

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Both operations have achieved notable successes
in their fight against violent extremism. Operation
Lafiya Dole successfully recaptured territories
previously held by Boko Haram, particularly in
Borno, Yobe, and Adamawa states. The sustained
military pressure led to a significant reduction in
Boko Haram's operational capabilities and a
decrease in the frequency and scale of attacks
between 2015 and 2017 (Mahmood and Ani, 2018;
Onapajo, 2020). The operation also incorporated
elements of civil-military cooperation, which
helped in winning the hearts and minds of local
populations in some areas (Bamidele, 2016).

Building on these foundations, Operation Hadin
Kai has fostered improved coordination between
the military and other security agencies, leading to
more effective joint operations. Since its launch,
there has been a significant increase in the number
of Boko Haram fighters surrendering to Nigerian
forces. The operation has also placed greater
emphasis on engaging local communities, which
has led to improved intelligence gathering and
early warning systems in some areas (Olaniyan
and Akpan, 2022; International Crisis Group, 2022;
Akinola, 2022).

Despite these successes, both operations have
faced

significant

challenges.

Inadequate

equipment, logistical difficulties, and insufficient
funding have hampered their effectiveness
(Amnesty International, 2018). Allegations of
human rights abuses by military personnel have
undermined trust between the military and local
communities (Human Rights Watch, 2019). The
adaptability of extremist groups, particularly the
emergence of ISWAP as a formidable threat, has
posed ongoing challenges to military operations
(Mahmood and Ani, 2018). The vast and often
inaccessible terrain of northeastern Nigeria has
made it challenging to maintain a consistent
military presence and pursue extremist groups
(Matfess, 2019). Furthermore, the porous nature

of Nigeria's borders with neighboring countries
has allowed extremist groups to move freely
across national boundaries, complicating military
efforts (Assanvo et al., 2016).

As of 2023, Operation Hadin Kai remains the
primary military strategy against violent
extremism in northeastern Nigeria. The operation
continues to focus on a multi-pronged approach,
combining kinetic military action with efforts to
win hearts and minds and foster greater
collaboration with local communities and other
security agencies. Recent developments include an
increased use of technology, improved regional
cooperation with the Multinational Joint Task
Force (MNJTF), and a greater focus on
rehabilitation and reintegration programs for
surrendered fighters (Olaniyan and Akpan, 2022;
Assanvo et al., 2022; International Organization for
Migration, 2022).

Both operations have contributed to enhancing
Nigeria's national security through their
collaborative approaches, albeit with limitations.
They have fostered improved coordination among
various security agencies and, in some instances,
improved intelligence gathering and early warning
systems

through

community

engagement.

Coordination with the MNJTF has helped address
the transnational nature of the threat, although
challenges remain (Olaniyan and Akpan, 2022;
Akinola, 2022; Assanvo et al., 2022).

However, the effectiveness of these collaborative
strategies has been constrained by several factors,
including trust deficits between the military and
local communities, inadequate resources, and
coordination challenges (Matfess, 2019). Both
operations have been criticized for their
overemphasis on kinetic military action at the
expense of addressing root causes of extremism
(Akinola, 2022). Insufficient attention to
underlying socio-economic grievances that fuel
extremism has also limited their effectiveness

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(Onapajo, 2021). The inability to effectively secure
Nigeria's borders has allowed extremist groups to
maintain cross-border sanctuaries and supply
lines (Assanvo et al., 2016). Moreover, while efforts
have been made to incorporate non-kinetic
elements, both operations have been criticized for
not being sufficiently integrated with broader
political, economic, and social strategies to address
extremism (Matfess, 2019).

While Operation Lafiya Dole and Operation Hadin
Kai have achieved some successes in the fight
against violent extremism in Nigeria, they have
fallen short of their ultimate objectives due to a
combination of operational, strategic, and
contextual challenges. Moving forward, addressing
these limitations and adopting a more
comprehensive, well-resourced, and rights-
respecting approach will be crucial for enhancing
the effectiveness of Nigeria's military operations
against violent extremism. This may involve
greater integration with non-military initiatives,
improved community engagement, enhanced
regional cooperation, and a sustained focus on
addressing the root causes of extremism.

b.

National Action Plan for Preventing and

Countering Violent Extremism:

The National

Action Plan for Preventing and Countering Violent
Extremism (NAPPCVE) was introduced by the
Nigerian government in 2017 as a comprehensive
strategy to address the root causes of violent
extremism and terrorism in the country.
Developed by the Office of the National Security
Adviser (ONSA), the plan was a response to the
growing threat posed by extremist groups,
particularly Boko Haram and its offshoot, the
Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP) (ONSA,
2017). The NAPPCVE's creation was influenced by
both domestic experiences and international best
practices in countering violent extremism (CVE),
aligning with the United Nations Plan of Action to
Prevent Violent Extremism and drawing insights

from similar national plans implemented in other
countries (Aly, 2015).

The development of the NAPPCVE involved
extensive consultations with various stakeholders,
including government agencies, civil society
organizations, religious leaders, and international
partners (Ojewale, 2021). This collaborative
approach reflects a shift from a predominantly
military-focused strategy to a more holistic one
that

emphasizes

prevention,

community

resilience, and addressing underlying grievances
(Aghedo, 2020). The plan is structured around four
key pillars: strengthening institutions and
coordination of PCVE programming, enhancing the
rule of law and access to justice, building
community resilience, and integrating strategic
communication in PCVE efforts.

Since its implementation, the NAPPCVE has
achieved several notable successes. It has
improved

coordination

among

various

government agencies and non-governmental
stakeholders involved in CVE efforts, reducing
duplication and enhancing information sharing
(Ademowo, 2021). The plan has also promoted
greater involvement of local communities in CVE
initiatives, leading to improved trust between
communities and security agencies in some areas
and enhancing intelligence gathering and early
warning systems (Olojo, 2019). Furthermore, the
NAPPCVE has facilitated the development of state-
level action plans, particularly in the North-East
region, allowing for more context-specific
interventions (Imam and Abba, 2021). The plan
has also supported capacity-building efforts,
providing training programs for security
personnel, civil society organizations, and
religious leaders on CVE strategies and best
practices (Onapajo, 2021). Additionally, it has
contributed to improved rehabilitation and
reintegration efforts for former extremists, such as
through Operation Safe Corridor (Felbab-Brown,

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2018).

Despite these successes, the NAPPCVE has faced
significant challenges. Inadequate funding has
hampered the full implementation of many
initiatives, with many proposed programs
remaining unrealized due to budgetary limitations
(Akinola, 2022). The ongoing insurgency in parts
of Nigeria has made it difficult to implement some
NAPPCVE programmes, particularly in areas most
affected by extremist violence (International Crisis
Group, 2021). Many implementing agencies and
local partners also lack the necessary expertise and
resources to effectively carry out CVE programs
(Ojewale, 2021). Coordination among various
stakeholders remains a challenge, with some
agencies still operating in silos despite
improvements (Ademowo, 2021). Moreover, there
is a lack of robust monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms to assess the effectiveness of
NAPPCVE initiatives, making it difficult to measure
their impact on reducing violent extremism (Olojo,
2020).

As of 2023, the NAPPCVE remains the primary
framework guiding Nigeria's CVE efforts, having
undergone revisions and updates to address
emerging challenges and incorporate lessons
learned (ONSA, 2022). Recent developments
include an increased focus on digital interventions
to address online radicalization (Chiluwa and
Chiluwa, 2020), greater emphasis on gender
dimensions of violent extremism (Oluwole, 2023),
enhanced regional cooperation within the Lake
Chad Basin region (Assanvo et al., 2022), and
increased attention to the rehabilitation and
reintegration of former extremists (International
Organization for Migration, 2022).

The NAPPCVE has contributed to enhancing
Nigeria's

national

security

through

its

collaborative approach in several ways. By
involving a wide range of stakeholders, it has
fostered a more comprehensive and inclusive

approach to national security (Akinola and
Uzodike, 2020). The plan's focus on addressing
underlying grievances and factors that contribute
to radicalization has the potential to create more
sustainable security outcomes compared to purely
military approaches (Agbiboa, 2019). Enhanced
community engagement has led to better
information sharing and early warning systems,
contributing to improved national security (Olojo,
2019).

By enhancing the capacity of various stakeholders
to prevent and counter violent extremism, the
NAPPCVE has strengthened Nigeria's overall
resilience to extremist threats (Onapajo, 2021).
The plan's emphasis on promoting interfaith
dialogue, peace education, and social cohesion
contributes to long-term national security by
fostering a more peaceful and resilient society
(Imam and Abba, 2021). However, while the
NAPPCVE has made important contributions to
enhancing national security through collaboration,
its full potential has yet to be realized due to the
challenges mentioned earlier. The ongoing threat
posed by extremist groups in Nigeria underscores
the need for continued refinement and robust
implementation of the plan.

The NAPPCVE indeed represents a significant step
towards a more comprehensive and collaborative
approach to countering violent extremism in
Nigeria. While it has achieved notable successes
and contributed to enhancing national security,
persistent challenges highlight the need for
continued efforts to strengthen its implementation
and effectiveness. Moving forward, addressing
funding constraints, improving coordination,
enhancing local capacity, and developing robust
monitoring and evaluation mechanisms will be
crucial for maximizing the NAPPCVE's impact on
Nigeria's national security.

c.

Operation Safe Corridor:

Operation Safe

Corridor (OSC) stands as a pivotal component of

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Nigeria's multifaceted approach to countering
violent extremism, particularly in response to the
Boko Haram insurgency in the country's
northeastern region. Launched in 2016, this
initiative marked a significant shift from a purely
military strategy to a more comprehensive
approach that incorporates deradicalization,
rehabilitation, and reintegration (DRR) of former
extremists (Brechenmacher, 2018). The concept of
Operation Safe Corridor emerged from the
recognition that military force alone was
insufficient to address the complex challenge of
violent extremism in Nigeria. Officially established
by the Nigerian government in 2016 under
President Muhammadu Buhari's administration,
OSC was designed as part of a broader counter-
terrorism strategy (Ojewale, 2021). Its origins can
be traced to earlier experiences with amnesty
programs in Nigeria, particularly the Presidential
Amnesty Programme for Niger Delta militants
launched in 2009 (Nwankpa, 2014). However, OSC
was specifically tailored to address the unique
challenges posed by Boko Haram and other
extremist groups operating in northeastern
Nigeria.

The program aims to offer an exit pathway for
individuals who had been involved with Boko
Haram but were willing to surrender and renounce
violence. It seeks to address the root causes of
radicalization and provide former extremists with
the skills and support necessary to reintegrate into
society (Felbab-Brown, 2018). Implemented at a
dedicated facility in Gombe State, Nigeria, the
program involves a 16-week course that includes
various components such as vocational training,
religious re-education, psychosocial support, and
civic education (Brechenmacher, 2018). This
curriculum is designed to address the ideological,
psychological, and socio-economic factors that
contribute to radicalization.

Overseen by a multi-agency committee that

includes representatives from various government
bodies, including the military, police, and
intelligence services, as well as civil society
organizations, OSC employs a multi-stakeholder
approach to ensure a comprehensive and
coordinated effort in the rehabilitation process
(Felbab-Brown, 2018). Participants in the
program, often referred to as "clients," are
individuals who have voluntarily surrendered or
have been captured and deemed eligible for
rehabilitation. The selection process involves
screening to determine the level of involvement in
extremist activities and the potential for successful
rehabilitation (Okoli and Ogayi, 2018).

Operation Safe Corridor has achieved several
notable successes since its inception. It has
incentivized a significant number of Boko Haram
members to surrender, with over 1,000 former
fighters processed through the program by 2020,
according to the Nigerian military (International
Organization for Migration, 2021). Participants
receive vocational training in areas such as
carpentry, welding, and agriculture, potentially
enhancing their economic prospects upon
reintegration (Felbab-Brown, 2018). The religious
re-education component has shown some success
in challenging extremist ideologies, with some
graduates reporting a shift in their understanding
of religious teachings (Brechenmacher, 2018).
Moreover, the program has provided valuable
intelligence about Boko Haram's operations,
structure, and recruitment tactics, informing
broader counter-terrorism efforts (Okoli and
Ogayi, 2018). OSC has also gained recognition as a
potential model for deradicalization programs in
other countries facing similar challenges with
violent extremism (Clubb and Tapley, 2018).

Despite these successes, Operation Safe Corridor
faces numerous challenges and limitations. One of
the most significant is the resistance from
communities to accept rehabilitated former

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extremists. Many communities, having suffered
from Boko Haram's violence, are skeptical of the
program and fear the return of former fighters
(International Crisis Group, 2021). There are also
concerns about the potential for program
graduates to return to extremist activities, and
while the program includes measures to monitor
graduates, the long-term effectiveness of these
measures remains uncertain (Brechenmacher,
2018).

The program's capacity is limited compared to the
scale of the problem, with thousands of Boko
Haram members still active (Felbab-Brown, 2018).
It has been criticized for not adequately addressing
the specific needs of women and children
associated with Boko Haram, whose experiences
and rehabilitation requirements often differ from
those of male combatants (Matfess, 2020). There
have been concerns about the lack of transparency
in the selection process and limited access for
independent monitoring and evaluation of the
program (Human Rights Watch, 2019). The
program also faces difficulties in ensuring
sustainable economic opportunities for graduates
in a region already grappling with high
unemployment and poverty rates (Ojewale, 2021).
Furthermore, there are ongoing debates about the
appropriate balance between accountability for
crimes committed and the need for reconciliation
and reintegration (Brechenmacher, 2018).

Operation Safe Corridor represents an attempt to
counter violent extremism through a collaborative,
multi-stakeholder approach. This approach has
several

potential

advantages,

including

comprehensive rehabilitation that addresses
multiple facets of radicalization, community
engagement in the reintegration process,
enhanced information sharing between agencies,
and the potential for international support and
collaboration

(Clubb

and

Tapley,

2018;

International Crisis Group, 2021; Okoli and Ogayi,

2018; Brechenmacher, 2018). However, the
effectiveness of this collaborative approach has
been limited by coordination challenges between
stakeholders with different mandates and
priorities, trust deficits between communities,
former extremists, and government agencies, and
resource constraints that restrict the program's
ability to implement comprehensive, long-term
strategies (Ojewale, 2021; International Crisis
Group, 2021; Felbab- Brown, 2018).

As of 2023, Operation Safe Corridor continues to
operate, processing surrendered and captured
Boko Haram members. The program has evolved
based on lessons learned, with increased emphasis
on community sensitization and post-graduation
monitoring (Olojo, 2022). However, there is a clear
need for improved action in several areas. These
include enhancing community engagement to
address resistance to reintegration, implementing
more rigorous monitoring and evaluation
mechanisms, expanding the program's capacity
while maintaining quality, developing more
tailored approaches for women and children,
strengthening economic reintegration efforts,
addressing root causes of radicalization, and
enhancing

regional

cooperation

on

deradicalization

and

reintegration

efforts

(International Crisis Group, 2021; Brechenmacher,
2018; Felbab-Brown, 2018; Matfess, 2020;
Ojewale, 2021; Akinola, 2022; Assanvo et al.,
2022).

In summary, Operation Safe Corridor represents a
significant shift in Nigeria's approach to
countering violent extremism, moving beyond
purely military strategies to incorporate
rehabilitation and reintegration efforts. While the
program has achieved notable successes, it faces
substantial challenges in community acceptance,
risk management, and sustainable reintegration.

The collaborative nature of the program offers
potential benefits, but realizing these benefits

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requires overcoming coordination challenges and
addressing resource constraints. Moving forward,
the effectiveness of Operation Safe Corridor will
depend on its ability to adapt to emerging
challenges, enhance community engagement,
improve monitoring and evaluation, and address
the complex socio-economic factors that
contribute to radicalization. As Nigeria continues
to grapple with the threat of violent extremism,
programs like Operation Safe Corridor will likely
remain a crucial component of a comprehensive
counter-terrorism strategy, necessitating ongoing
refinement and support to maximize their impact.

d.

Multinational Joint Task Forces:

The

Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF) stands as a
significant collaborative effort to address
transnational security threats, particularly
terrorism and violent extremism, in the Lake Chad
Basin region of Africa. This comprehensive
analysis delves into the MNJTF's history,
participating countries, successes, challenges, and
its effectiveness in countering violent extremism
through collaborative strategies. The MNJTF's
roots can be traced back to 1994 when it was
initially established to combat cross-border
banditry and criminality in the Lake Chad region
(Assanvo et al., 2016). However, the rise of Boko
Haram in northeastern Nigeria and its subsequent
expansion into neighboring countries necessitated
a reimagining of the MNJTF's mandate and
structure. In 2012, the Lake Chad Basin
Commission (LCBC) member states agreed to
transform the existing MNJTF into a more robust
force to counter the growing threat posed by Boko
Haram (Tar and Mustapha, 2017). This decision
was formalized in 2014 when the African Union
Peace and Security Council authorized the
deployment of the MNJTF for an initial period of 12
months (African Union, 2014). The renewed
MNJTF was officially launched in 2015 with an
expanded mandate to create a safe and secure
environment in the areas affected by Boko Haram

and other terrorist groups, facilitate the
implementation of overall stabilization programs,
and enable humanitarian operations (Ikpe, 2017).

The MNJTF comprises troops from five main
contributing countries: Nigeria, Niger, Chad,
Cameroon, and Benin. These nations form the core
of the task force, with each contributing troops and
resources to the joint effort (Assanvo et al., 2016).
Nigeria, as the epicenter of the Boko Haram
insurgency, plays a central role in the MNJTF. It
hosts the Force Headquarters in N'Djamena, Chad,
and contributes the largest contingent of troops
(Onapajo and Ozden, 2020). Chad, with its
experienced military and strategic location, has
been crucial in cross-border operations against

Boko Haram (Thurston, 2017). Cameroon and
Niger, sharing borders with Nigeria, have been
instrumental in preventing the spread of the
insurgency and conducting joint operations (Zenn,
2018). Benin, while not directly affected by Boko
Haram, contributes troops as part of its
commitment to regional security (Assanvo et al.,
2016).

The MNJTF has achieved several notable successes
in its fight against Boko Haram and other extremist
groups in the Lake Chad Basin region. One of the
most significant achievements has been the
reclamation of territories previously held by Boko
Haram. Joint operations have pushed the terrorist
group out of many areas, particularly in
northeastern Nigeria and along the borders with
Cameroon, Niger, and Chad (Onapajo and Ozden,
2020). The MNJTF's coordinated military
operations have significantly weakened Boko
Haram's operational capabilities, destroying
numerous camps, seizing weapons caches, and
disrupting the group's supply lines (Tar and
Mustapha, 2017). Moreover, the task force has
fostered greater cooperation and intelligence
sharing among participating countries, leading to
more effective cross-border operations and a more

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unified approach to regional security (Ikpe, 2017).
By securing previously inaccessible areas, the
MNJTF has facilitated the delivery of humanitarian
aid to displaced populations and communities
affected by the conflict (UNHCR, 2019). The
pressure exerted by the MNJTF has also led to the
surrender of numerous Boko Haram fighters,
weakening the group's structure and morale
(International Crisis Group, 2020).

Despite these successes, the MNJTF faces several
significant challenges and limitations. Inadequate
and inconsistent funding has been a persistent
issue for the task force. While it receives support
from international partners, including the
European Union and the United States, financial
shortfalls have hampered its operations and
sustainability (Assanvo et al., 2016). Coordinating
military operations among five sovereign nations
with different military structures, languages, and
operational procedures has proven challenging,
sometimes leading to delays in launching joint
operations or responding to emerging threats (Tar
and Mustapha, 2017). The vast and often
inhospitable terrain of the Lake Chad Basin poses
significant logistical challenges, with inadequate
infrastructure complicating troop movements and
supply lines (Zenn, 2018). While improved,
intelligence sharing among MNJTF member states
remains a challenge, as national security concerns
and trust issues sometimes hinder the full and
timely exchange of critical intelligence (Onapajo
and Ozden, 2020).

Furthermore, there have been allegations of
human rights abuses committed by MNJTF troops,
including extrajudicial killings and arbitrary
detentions. These accusations undermine the task
force's legitimacy and complicate its relationship
with local populations (Human Rights Watch,
2019). Adding to these challenges, Boko Haram
and its offshoots have shown a remarkable ability
to adapt to MNJTF operations, shifting tactics,

fragmenting into smaller cells, and expanding their
geographical reach (International Crisis Group,
2020). The MNJTF's effectiveness in countering
violent extremism through collaborative strategies
has been mixed. The task force has undoubtedly
achieved significant military successes against
Boko Haram and other extremist groups, reducing
their ability to operate freely and recruit new
members (Onapajo and Ozden, 2020). The
MNJTF's multinational structure has fostered a
more comprehensive regional approach to
countering violent extremism, making it more
difficult for extremist groups to exploit national
borders and find safe havens (Ikpe, 2017).
Improved intelligence sharing among member
states has enhanced the ability to track and target
extremist networks across borders (Tar and
Mustapha, 2017).

Several factors limit the MNJTF's effectiveness in
countering violent extremism. The task force's
focus has primarily been on military operations,
with less emphasis on addressing the root causes
of extremism, such as poverty, unemployment, and
lack of education (Zenn, 2018). Engagement with
local communities, crucial for gathering
intelligence and preventing recruitment by
extremist groups, has been insufficient in many
areas (International Crisis Group, 2020). While
some MNJTF member states have implemented
deradicalization programs for former Boko Haram
members, these efforts are not uniform across the
region and lack coordination (Botha and Abdile,
2019). Moreover, military operations alone have
been insufficient in countering the ideological
appeal of extremist groups, with the underlying
narratives that fuel recruitment and support for
these groups remaining largely unaddressed
(Thurston, 2017).

As of 2024, the MNJTF continues to operate in the
Lake Chad Basin region, maintaining pressure on
Boko Haram and its offshoots. However, the

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security situation remains fragile, with the
extremist

threat

adapting

and

evolving

(International Crisis Group, 2023). To enhance its
effectiveness, several areas require attention and
improvement. Establishing a more stable and
sustainable funding mechanism is crucial for the
MNJTF's long-term operations, potentially
involving greater financial commitments from
member states and exploring innovative funding
sources (Assanvo et al., 2016). Improving
coordination mechanisms among member states,
including standardized operational procedures
and communication protocols, would enhance the
MNJTF's effectiveness (Tar and Mustapha, 2017).

Integrating military operations with broader
socio-economic

development

initiatives

is

essential, addressing root causes of extremism
through education, job creation, and governance
improvements (Zenn, 2018). Investing in
advanced intelligence gathering and analysis
capabilities, coupled with improved information
sharing among member states, would enhance the
MNJTF's ability to anticipate and respond to
threats (Onapajo and Ozden, 2020). Developing
more robust community engagement strategies to
build trust, gather intelligence, and prevent
recruitment by extremist groups is crucial
(International Crisis Group, 2020).

Strengthening human rights training and
accountability mechanisms within the MNJTF is
necessary to address allegations of abuses and
maintain local support (Human Rights Watch,
2019). The MNJTF must continue to evolve its
strategies to counter the adaptive nature of
extremist groups, including addressing the
growing threat of online radicalization and
recruitment

(Botha

and

Abdile,

2019).

Coordinating with regional economic bodies and
development partners to implement large-scale
development projects in the Lake Chad Basin could
help address underlying socio-economic factors

contributing to extremism (UNDP, 2022).

The Multinational Joint Task Force represents a
significant effort by Lake Chad Basin countries to
collectively address the threat of violent
extremism in the region. While it has achieved
notable military successes and improved regional
cooperation, the MNJTF faces ongoing challenges
in fully countering the complex and evolving threat
posed by groups like Boko Haram. Moving forward,
the task force's effectiveness will depend on its
ability to address its current limitations, adopt a
more holistic approach to countering violent
extremism, and adapt to the changing nature of the
threat. By combining military operations with
robust socio-economic initiatives, improved
intelligence capabilities, and stronger community
engagement, the MNJTF can enhance its impact in
creating lasting peace and security in the Lake
Chad Basin region

e.

Community

Involvement

Initiative:

Community involvement initiatives in countering
violent extremism (CVE) in Nigeria have emerged
as a crucial component of the nation's multifaceted
approach to addressing the persistent threat of
terrorism and extremist ideologies. These
initiatives, rooted in the understanding that
effective CVE strategies must engage local
communities as partners rather than mere
recipients of security interventions, have evolved
significantly over the past decade. The history of
community involvement in CVE in Nigeria can be
traced back to the early 2010s when the escalating
Boko Haram insurgency in the northeast
highlighted the limitations of purely military
responses to extremism. As the government and
international partners began to recognize the
complex socio-economic and ideological factors
fueling radicalization, there was a gradual shift
towards more inclusive and community-centered
approaches (Botha and Abdile, 2019).

One of the earliest formal community involvement

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initiatives was the Civilian Joint Task Force (CJTF),
which emerged spontaneously in Maiduguri,
Borno State, in 2013. The CJTF, comprised of local
vigilantes, worked alongside the military to
provide intelligence and support in combating
Boko Haram (Bamidele, 2016). While not initially
designed as a CVE program, the CJTF demonstrated
the potential of community-based efforts in
countering extremism and laid the groundwork for
more structured initiatives. In 2014, the Nigerian
government, with support from international
partners, launched the Countering Violent
Extremism (CVE) Program under the Office of the
National Security Adviser (ONSA). This program
marked a significant shift towards a more
comprehensive approach to CVE, emphasizing
community engagement, de-radicalization, and
addressing root causes of extremism (Onuoha and
Ugwueze, 2020).

The CVE Program introduced several community-
focused initiatives, including the Counter-
Narrative Program, which aimed to amplify
moderate voices within communities and
challenge extremist ideologies. This initiative
involved partnering with local religious leaders,
educators, and civil society organizations to
develop and disseminate counter-narratives
through various media channels (Botha and
Abdile, 2019). Another significant development
was the establishment of the Nigeria Stability and
Reconciliation Programme (NSRP) in 2012,
supported by the UK Department for International
Development. The NSRP worked closely with local
communities

in

conflict-affected

states,

implementing peacebuilding initiatives and
supporting community-led efforts to address
drivers of conflict and extremism (NSRP, 2017).

As these initiatives gained traction, there was a
growing recognition of the need to involve women
and youth in CVE efforts. The Women Without
Walls Initiative (WOWWI), launched in 2015,

focused on empowering women to play active
roles in preventing and countering violent
extremism in their communities. Similarly, youth-
focused programs like the Youth Ambassadors for
Community Peace and Interfaith Foundation
aimed to engage young people in peacebuilding
and interfaith dialogue (Idris, 2019). The successes
of community involvement initiatives in CVE in
Nigeria have been notable, albeit challenging to
quantify precisely. One of the most significant
achievements has been the improved relationship
between security forces and local communities in
areas affected by extremism. The CJTF, for
instance, has been credited with enhancing
intelligence gathering and reducing the trust
deficit between the military and civilians
(Bamidele, 2016).

Community-led early warning systems have also
shown promise in preventing attacks and
identifying potential recruits for extremist groups.
In Yobe State, for example, a community-based
early warning mechanism established with
support from the NSRP has helped in timely
reporting of suspicious activities and potential
security threats (NSRP, 2017). The engagement of
religious leaders in counter-narrative efforts has
been particularly effective in challenging the
ideological foundations of extremist groups.
Initiatives like the Nigerian Inter-Faith Action
Association (NIFAA) have brought together
Muslim and Christian leaders to promote interfaith
dialogue and counter religious justifications for
violence (Olojo, 2019).

Women's involvement in CVE has led to more
nuanced and comprehensive approaches to
addressing extremism. Women-led organizations
have been instrumental in identifying early signs of
radicalization within families and communities, as
well as in supporting the reintegration of former
extremist group members (Idris, 2019). Youth
engagement programs have shown promise in

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reducing the vulnerability of young people to
extremist recruitment. Initiatives focusing on
vocational training, civic education, and interfaith
dialogue have provided alternative pathways for
youth at risk of radicalization (Onuoha and
Ugwueze, 2020).

Despite these successes, community involvement
initiatives in CVE in Nigeria face significant
challenges and limitations. One of the primary
obstacles is the persistent insecurity in many areas
affected by extremism, which hampers the
implementation and sustainability of community-
based programs (International Crisis Group,
2021). Funding constraints have also limited the
scale and reach of many community involvement
initiatives. While international partners have
provided support, there is often a lack of sustained,
long-term funding for community-led CVE efforts
(Botha and Abdile, 2019).

The stigmatization of individuals and communities
associated with extremist groups remains a
significant challenge. This stigma can hinder the
reintegration of former extremist group members
and their families, undermining the effectiveness
of deradicalization and rehabilitation programs
(Clubb and Tapley, 2018). There is also the risk of
community

fatigue

and

disillusionment,

particularly in areas where CVE initiatives have
not yielded tangible improvements in security or
livelihood opportunities. This can lead to reduced
community participation and support for CVE
efforts over time (Olojo, 2019). The question of
whether community involvement initiatives have
been able to counter violent extremism through
collaborative strategies effectively is complex and
multifaceted. While there have been notable
successes, the persistent threat of extremism in
Nigeria suggests that these initiatives alone have
not been sufficient to fully address the challenge.

However, it is important to note that CVE is a long-
term process, and the full impact of community

involvement initiatives may take years to manifest
fully. Moreover, the effectiveness of these
initiatives should be considered in conjunction
with other security and development efforts
(Onuoha and Ugwueze, 2020). The current state of
community involvement in CVE in Nigeria is one of
continued evolution and adaptation. There is
growing recognition of the need for more localized
and context-specific approaches, moving away
from one-size-fits-all models of community
engagement (International Crisis Group, 2021).

Efforts are being made to strengthen the evidence
base for community-led CVE initiatives through
improved monitoring and evaluation mechanisms.
This includes the development of more nuanced
indicators to assess the impact of soft approaches
to countering extremism (Idris, 2019). There is
also an increasing focus on leveraging technology
and social media in community-based CVE efforts.
Initiatives like the Peer-to-Peer: Challenging
Extremism program have engaged Nigerian youth
in developing online campaigns to counter
extremist narratives (Botha and Abdile, 2019).

Looking ahead, there is a clear need for enhanced
action to strengthen and expand community
involvement in CVE in Nigeria. There may be the
need for sustainable funding, establishing more
sustainable funding mechanisms for community-
led CVE initiatives, potentially through public-
private partnerships and innovative financing
models (Onuoha and Ugwueze, 2020). Investing in
capacity building for local organizations and
community leaders engaged in CVE work, focusing
on project management, monitoring and
evaluation, and conflict-sensitive programming
(Clubb and Tapley, 2018), enhancing coordination
between government agencies, international
partners, and community-based organizations to
ensure a more coherent and comprehensive
approach to CVE (International Crisis Group,
2021). Also, there could be the need to integrate

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CVE efforts more closely with broader
development initiatives to address the underlying
socio-economic factors that contribute to
vulnerability to extremism (Olojo, 2019).
Additionally,

expanding

programmes

that

empower youth and women as agents of change in
their communities, providing them with the skills
and resources to lead CVE efforts (Idris, 2019).
How about incorporating trauma-informed
approaches in community-based CVE initiatives,
recognizing the impact of conflict and violence on
individuals and communities (Botha and Abdile,
2019). Finally, there is the need to develop more
sophisticated digital engagement strategies to
counter online radicalization and leverage social
media for positive messaging (Onuoha and
Ugwueze, 2020) and invest in research to better
understand the dynamics of radicalization and the
effectiveness of different community-based CVE
approaches in the Nigerian context (International
Crisis Group, 2021).

In summary, community involvement initiatives
have become an integral part of Nigeria's approach
to countering violent extremism. While these
efforts have shown promise and achieved notable
successes, they continue to face significant
challenges and limitations. The evolving nature of
the extremist threat in Nigeria necessitates
ongoing adaptation and innovation in community-
based CVE strategies. By addressing current
limitations, enhancing coordination, and investing
in sustainable, locally-driven approaches, Nigeria
can strengthen its community involvement
initiatives and build more resilient communities
capable of resisting the allure of extremist
ideologies. The path forward requires sustained
commitment, resources, and a willingness to learn
and adapt based on evidence and community
feedback.

Deradicalization,

Rehabilitation,

and

Reintegration (DRR):

The DRR Programme

consists of three main phases: deradicalisation,
which involves psychological and ideological
interventions to change extremist mindsets;
rehabilitation, which includes vocational training
and psychosocial support to prepare individuals
for reintegration; and reintegration, which
provides support for former extremists as they
return to their communities (Barkindo and Bryans,
2016).

The programme has achieved several significant
successes since its inception. Perhaps most
notably, it has encouraged defections from Boko
Haram, providing an alternative path for those
seeking to leave the group. According to the
Nigerian Military (2021), over 1,000 former Boko
Haram members had voluntarily surrendered and
entered the DRR Programme by 2021. This
represents a substantial number of individuals
potentially diverted from extremist activities and
given the opportunity for rehabilitation and
reintegration.

The DRR Programme has also made significant
strides in providing vocational training to
participants, equipping them with skills that can
facilitate their economic reintegration into society.
A report by the International Organization for
Migration (2020) indicated that 85% of
programme graduates had acquired at least one
marketable skill. This focus on skill acquisition is
crucial for addressing one of the potential drivers
of extremism

–

economic marginalization

–

and

providing former extremists with alternative
livelihood options.

Moreover, the programme has provided crucial
psychological support to former extremists,
recognizing the complex trauma and ideological
indoctrination that many have experienced. A
study by Clubb and Tapley (2018) found that 70%
of participants reported improved mental health
outcomes after completing the programme. This
psychological support is essential not only for the

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well-being of the individuals involved but also for
their successful reintegration into society.

The DRR Programme has also facilitated
community sensitization efforts to support the
reintegration of former extremists. According to
the Office of the National Security Adviser (2021),
over 200 community dialogue sessions had been
conducted in affected areas. These efforts are
crucial for preparing communities to accept
returning former extremists and for addressing
potential tensions and stigma that could hinder
successful reintegration.

However, despite these achievements, the
implementation of the DRR Programme has faced
several significant challenges. One of the most
persistent issues has been the stigmatization of
programme graduates upon their return to their
communities. Many former extremists face
discrimination and suspicion, complicating
reintegration efforts (Barkindo, 2018). This
stigmatization not only affects the individuals
involved but also potentially undermines the
effectiveness of the programme by discouraging
participation

and

hindering

successful

reintegration.

There are also ongoing concerns about the
potential security risks posed by reintegrated
former extremists (Zenn, 2019). Balancing the goal
of rehabilitation and reintegration with the
imperative of ensuring community safety remains
a significant challenge for the programme. This
concern highlights the need for robust monitoring
and support systems for reintegrated individuals,
as well as continued efforts to build community
trust and acceptance.

Resource limitations have also posed a significant
challenge to the DRR Programme. The initiative
has faced constraints in terms of funding and
trained personnel, limiting its capacity to process
large numbers of defectors (Omenma et al., 2020).
This resource shortage can potentially create

bottlenecks in the rehabilitation process and limit
the programme's overall impact.

Furthermore,

assessing

the

long-term

effectiveness of the programme in preventing
recidivism has proven challenging due to the
difficulty of tracking participants over time (Botha
and Abdile, 2019). This challenge in measuring
long-term impact is common in deradicalization
programmes worldwide and highlights the need
for continued research and the development of
robust evaluation methodologies.

The

Deradicalisation,

Rehabilitation,

and

Reintegration Programme represent significant
components of Nigeria's comprehensive approach
to combating extremism and terrorism. This
initiative demonstrates a recognition of the need
for multifaceted strategies that address both the
prevention of radicalization and the rehabilitation
of those who have been involved in extremist
activities. The DRR Programme, addresses the
critical need for pathways out of extremism for
those already involved. Its success in encouraging
defections, providing skills and psychological
support to former extremists, and facilitating
community dialogue is significant. However, the
challenges of stigmatization, security concerns,
and resource limitations underscore the complex
dynamics involved in rehabilitation and
reintegration efforts.

Assessment of the Armed forces of Nigeria’s

Collaborative Strategies

The Federal Government of Nigeria has
increasingly recognized the importance of
collaborative

stakeholder

engagement

in

enhancing national security. This approach
acknowledges that security challenges are
complex and multifaceted, requiring the
involvement of various actors beyond traditional
security agencies. This essay critically examines
the efforts made by the Nigerian government to
enhance national security through collaborative

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stakeholder engagement, analyzing the strategies
employed, their successes, challenges, and
potential areas for improvement.

One of the primary ways the Nigerian government
has

pursued

collaborative

stakeholder

engagement is through the development and
implementation of comprehensive national
security strategies. The National Security Strategy
(NSS), first introduced in 2014 and revised in
2019, explicitly emphasizes the need for a whole-
of-society approach to security (Office of the
National Security Adviser, 2019). This strategy
recognizes that effective security management
requires the involvement of not only government
agencies but also civil society organizations,
community leaders, the private sector, and
international partners.

The NSS outlines several key areas for stakeholder
collaboration, including intelligence gathering,
community policing, and counterterrorism efforts.
For instance, the strategy emphasizes the
importance of community engagement in
preventing and countering violent extremism. This
approach has led to the establishment of various
community-based initiatives aimed at building
resilience against radicalization and extremism.
According to a study by Aghedo and Eke (2020),
community engagement programs implemented
under the NSS framework have resulted in a 30%
increase in community reporting of suspicious
activities to security agencies in northeastern
Nigeria between 2015 and 2019.

Another significant initiative that demonstrates
the government's commitment to collaborative
stakeholder engagement is the National Action
Plan for Preventing and Countering Violent
Extremism (NAP-PCVE). Launched in 2017, this
plan explicitly calls for the involvement of a wide
range of stakeholders in preventing and
countering violent extremism (Office of the
National Security Adviser, 2017). The NAP-PCVE

emphasizes the need for partnerships between
government agencies, civil society organizations,
religious leaders, educational institutions, and the
media in developing and implementing PCVE
programs.

One of the key achievements of the NAP-PCVE has
been the establishment of state-level PCVE
committees

that

bring

together

various

stakeholders to coordinate PCVE efforts at the local
level. A report by the Nigeria Stability and
Reconciliation Programme (2019) found that these
committees have facilitated improved information
sharing and coordination among different actors
involved in PCVE activities. The report noted that
in states where these committees were active,
there was a 40% increase in the number of joint
PCVE initiatives implemented by government
agencies and civil society organizations between
2017 and 2019.

The Federal Government has also made efforts to
engage the private sector in national security
initiatives.

The

Cybercrime

(Prohibition,

Prevention, etc.) Act of 2015 mandates
collaboration between government agencies and
private sector entities, particularly in the
telecommunications and financial services sectors,
to combat cybercrime (Federal Republic of Nigeria,
2015). This legislation has led to the establishment
of public-private partnerships aimed at enhancing
cybersecurity and protecting critical national
infrastructure.

A notable example of such collaboration is the
Nigerian Financial Intelligence Unit (NFIU), which
works closely with financial institutions to detect
and prevent money laundering and terrorist
financing. According to the NFIU's 2020 annual
report, this collaboration resulted in a 35%
increase in the number of suspicious transaction
reports filed by financial institutions between
2018 and 2020, leading to several successful
investigations and prosecutions of financial crimes

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linked to terrorism and organized crime (Nigerian
Financial Intelligence Unit, 2020).

The government has also sought to enhance
collaboration with international partners in
addressing security challenges. Nigeria has
actively participated in regional security initiatives
such as the Multinational Joint Task Force
(MNJTF), which brings together military forces
from Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, Niger, and Benin to
combat Boko Haram and other terrorist groups in
the Lake Chad region (African Union, 2018). This
regional collaboration has led to improved
intelligence sharing and coordinated military
operations against terrorist groups operating
across borders.

Furthermore, Nigeria has engaged in partnerships
with international organizations and foreign
governments to enhance its security capabilities.
For instance, the country has worked closely with
the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
(UNODC) to strengthen its legal and institutional
framework for combating terrorism and organized
crime. A UNODC report (2021) noted that this
collaboration has resulted in the training of over
500 Nigerian law enforcement and judicial officials
in counterterrorism and organized crime
investigation techniques between 2016 and 2020.

The government has also recognized the
importance of engaging traditional and religious
leaders in security efforts, particularly in areas
affected by communal conflicts and insurgency.
The establishment of the Nigeria Inter-Religious
Council (NIREC) in 1999, which brings together
Christian and Muslim leaders, exemplifies this
approach. NIREC has played a crucial role in
promoting inter-faith dialogue and conflict
resolution in various parts of the country. A study
by Ojewale (2021) found that in areas where
NIREC was active, there was a 25% reduction in
reported cases of religious-based conflicts
between 2015 and 2020.

However,

despite

these

efforts,

the

implementation of collaborative stakeholder
engagement in enhancing national security has
faced several challenges. One of the primary
obstacles has been the lack of trust between some
stakeholders and government agencies. Years of
perceived neglect, corruption, and human rights
abuses by security forces have eroded public trust
in many parts of the country, making it difficult to
establish

effective

partnerships

(Amnesty

International, 2020).

Moreover, there have been instances where the
government's

approach

to

stakeholder

engagement has been criticized as being
superficial or tokenistic. For example, while the
NAP-PCVE emphasizes the importance of civil
society

involvement,

some

civil

society

organizations have reported feeling marginalized
in the actual implementation of PCVE programs. A
survey conducted by the Centre for Democracy and
Development (2020) found that only 40% of civil
society organizations involved in PCVE activities
felt that their input was adequately considered in
government-led initiatives.

Another challenge has been the lack of adequate
resources and capacity to support comprehensive
stakeholder engagement. Many government
agencies lack the personnel, training, and financial
resources needed to effectively coordinate and
sustain partnerships with diverse stakeholders.
This has sometimes resulted in inconsistent and ad
hoc engagement efforts that fail to yield long-term
results (Omenma et al., 2020).

Furthermore, the government's approach to
stakeholder engagement in some areas has been
criticized for not being sufficiently inclusive. For
instance, efforts to engage youth in security
initiatives have been limited, despite the fact that
young people constitute a significant demographic
in Nigeria and are often both perpetrators and
victims of insecurity. A report by the West Africa

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Network for Peacebuilding (2019) noted that only
15% of government-led security initiatives
specifically targeted youth engagement between
2015 and 2019.

The government's collaboration with the media in
addressing security challenges has also been a
contentious issue. While there have been efforts to
engage media organizations in public awareness
campaigns and information dissemination, there
have also been instances of media suppression and
intimidation, particularly when reporting on
sensitive security issues. This has sometimes
strained the relationship between the government
and media stakeholders, hindering effective
collaboration (Reporters Without Borders, 2021).

Despite these challenges, there have been notable
successes in the government's efforts to enhance
national

security

through

collaborative

stakeholder engagement. The establishment of
civilian joint task forces (CJTF) in northeastern
Nigeria to support military operations against
Boko Haram is one such example. These local
vigilante groups, composed of community
volunteers, have played a crucial role in providing
intelligence to security forces and protecting
communities from terrorist attacks. A study by
Bamidele (2020) found that areas with active CJTF
presence experienced a 45% reduction in
successful Boko Haram attacks between 2014 and
2019 compared to areas without CJTF presence.

Another success has been the implementation of
community policing initiatives in various parts of
the country. The Nigeria Police Force's community
policing program, launched in 2020, aims to foster
closer collaboration between the police and local
communities in addressing security challenges.
While still in its early stages, initial reports suggest
that this approach has led to improved trust
between communities and law enforcement in
pilot areas. A survey conducted by the CLEEN
Foundation (2021) in six states where the program

was piloted found that 60% of respondents
reported increased willingness to cooperate with
the police in crime prevention efforts.

The government's efforts to engage the private
sector in cybersecurity initiatives have also shown
promise. The establishment of the Office of the
National Security Adviser's National Cybersecurity
Coordination Center has facilitated improved
information

sharing

between

government

agencies and private sector entities on cyber
threats. According to the center's 2020 report, this
collaboration led to a 30% increase in the early
detection and mitigation of cyber attacks against
critical national infrastructure between 2018 and
2020 (Office of the National Security Adviser,
2020).

Looking ahead, there are several areas where the
Nigerian government could further enhance its
approach to collaborative stakeholder engagement
in national security. First, there is a need for more
structured and institutionalized mechanisms for
stakeholder

engagement.

While

ad

hoc

collaborations have yielded some positive results,
establishing formal platforms for regular dialogue
and joint decision-making between government
agencies and other stakeholders could lead to
more sustainable and effective partnerships.

Second, the government should prioritize building
trust

with

stakeholders,

particularly

in

communities affected by insecurity. This could
involve increased transparency in security
operations, addressing allegations of human rights
abuses by security forces, and demonstrating a
genuine commitment to incorporating stakeholder
input into security policies and strategies.

Third, there is a need for increased investment in
capacity building for both government agencies
and non-governmental stakeholders involved in
security initiatives. This could include training
programs on collaborative approaches to security,
conflict resolution, and community engagement.

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Fourth, the government should strive for more
inclusive stakeholder engagement, particularly in
terms of youth and women's participation in
security initiatives. Developing targeted programs
that empower these groups to contribute to
security efforts could tap into valuable resources
and perspectives that are currently underutilized.
Finally, there is a need for improved monitoring
and evaluation of collaborative security initiatives.
Developing robust metrics to assess the impact of
stakeholder engagement efforts could provide
valuable insights for refining and improving these
approaches over time.

Summarily, the Federal Government of Nigeria has
made significant efforts to enhance national
security through collaborative stakeholder
engagement. Initiatives such as the National
Security Strategy, the National Action Plan for
Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism, and
various public-private partnerships demonstrate a
recognition of the importance of a whole-of-society
approach to security. While these efforts have
yielded some positive results, challenges such as
trust

deficits,

resource

constraints,

and

inconsistent implementation have hindered their
full potential. Moving forward, addressing these
challenges and building on successful models of
collaboration will be crucial for enhancing the
effectiveness of Nigeria's national security efforts.
By fostering genuine partnerships with a diverse
range of stakeholders, the government can tap into
a wealth of resources, knowledge, and capabilities
that are essential for addressing the complex
security challenges facing the country. Ultimately,
a collaborative approach that engages all sectors of
society in security efforts holds the greatest
promise for building a more secure and resilient
Nigeria.

CONCLUSION

The Armed Forces of Nigeria (AFN) have
demonstrated a significant shift in their approach

to combating violent extremism, embracing
collaborative strategies that reflect the complex
nature of 21st-century security challenges. This
evolution from traditional, state-centric methods
to more inclusive, multi-stakeholder engagement
aligns with global trends in counter-extremism
efforts and represents a crucial adaptation to the
changing landscape of national security.

Central to this new approach are key initiatives
such as the National Security Strategy (NSS) and
the National Action Plan for Preventing and
Countering Violent Extremism (NAP-PCVE), both
of which emphasize a whole-of-society approach.
These frameworks have facilitated meaningful
engagement with civil society organizations,
religious leaders, and traditional rulers in counter-
extremism programs. The establishment of state-
level PCVE committees has further enhanced
coordination among various stakeholders, while
collaboration with international partners through
initiatives like the Multinational Joint Task Force
(MNJTF) has strengthened regional responses to
cross-border threats. Additionally, the AFN has
fostered public-private partnerships, particularly
in the realms of cybersecurity and financial
intelligence, recognizing the critical role of non-
state actors in addressing modern security
challenges.

These collaborative efforts have yielded tangible
successes. There has been a marked improvement
in intelligence gathering and community reporting
of suspicious activities, indicating growing trust
between the military and local populations. The
enhanced

coordination

among

different

stakeholders in PCVE activities has led to more
comprehensive and effective interventions. Joint
military operations against cross-border terrorist
groups have demonstrated the value of
international cooperation, while increased
detection and prevention of cyber-attacks and
financial crimes linked to terrorism highlight the

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benefits of public-private collaboration.

However, despite these achievements, significant
challenges persist in the implementation of
collaborative strategies. Trust deficits between
communities and security agencies continue to
hinder full cooperation in some areas. The AFN
often faces constraints in resources and capacity,
limiting its ability to sustain comprehensive
stakeholder engagement. There have been
instances of inconsistent implementation and
superficial engagement with stakeholders,
potentially undermining the effectiveness of
collaborative initiatives. Furthermore, the limited
inclusion of youth and women in security
initiatives represents a missed opportunity to
leverage diverse perspectives and experiences in
counter-extremism efforts.

To enhance the effectiveness of these
collaborative strategies, the AFN should focus on
several key areas for improvement. Establishing
more structured and institutionalized mechanisms
for stakeholder engagement could ensure more
consistent

and

meaningful

collaboration.

Prioritizing trust-building measures with local
communities is crucial for overcoming historical
tensions and fostering genuine partnerships.
Investing in capacity building, both for military
personnel and non- governmental stakeholders,
would enhance the quality and sustainability of
collaborative efforts. Ensuring more inclusive
participation, particularly of youth and women,
could bring fresh insights and approaches to
counter-extremism strategies. Finally, developing
robust monitoring and evaluation systems for
collaborative initiatives would allow for evidence-
based refinement of strategies over time.

Finally, while the AFN has made commendable
progress in adopting collaborative strategies to
tackle violent extremism, there remains significant
room for improvement. By addressing the
identified challenges and building on successful

models of collaboration, the AFN can further
enhance its effectiveness in countering extremism
and fostering a more secure Nigeria. The continued
evolution of these collaborative approaches will be
crucial in adapting to the dynamic nature of
security threats and leveraging the collective
strengths of all stakeholders in the pursuit of
national security. As Nigeria faces ongoing and
emerging security challenges, the AFN's
commitment to inclusive, collaborative strategies
will be a key determinant of its success in
safeguarding the nation's peace and stability.

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References

Adegbulu, F., 2021. The role of religious leaders in countering violent extremism in Nigeria.

Journal of Religion and Violence, 9(1), pp.45-67.

Adelaja, A., Labo, A. and Penar, E., 2018. Public opinion on the root causes of terrorism and objectives of terrorists: A Boko Haram case study. Perspectives on Terrorism, 12(3), pp.35-49.

Adelaja, A., Labo, A. and Penar, P. (2021) 'Campus-based interventions and student attitudes towards extremism: Evidence from northern Nigerian universities', African Security Review, 30(3), pp. 277-298.

Aderonke, M. (2015) 'Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Nigeria: Theoretical Paradigms and Lessons for Public Policy', Canadian Social Science, 11(3), pp. 72-79.

Briggs, R., 2010. Community engagement for counterterrorism: lessons from the United Kingdom. International Affairs, 86(4), pp.971-981.

Budget Office of the Federation (2020) Security Sector Expenditure Analysis 2015-2019. Abuja: Federal Government of Nigeria.

Bures, O., 2018. EU counterterrorism policy: a paper tiger?. Routledge.

Buzan, B. (1991) People, states and fear: An agenda for international security studies in the post- cold war era. 2nd edn. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.

Buzan, B., Wæver, O. and de Wilde, J. (1998) Security: A new framework for analysis. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.

Caballero-Anthony, M. (2015) An introduction to non-traditional security studies: A transnational approach. London: SAGE Publications.

Center for Democracy and Development, 2021. Public perceptions of security and counter- extremism efforts in northeastern Nigeria. Abuja: CDD.

Centre for Democracy and Development (2020) Assessment of Civil Society Involvement in Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism in Nigeria. Abuja: CDD.

Chermak, S., Freilich, J.D., Parkin, W.S. and Lynch, J.P., 2013. American terrorism and extremist crime data sources and selectivity bias: An investigation focusing on homicide events committed by far-right extremists. Journal of quantitative criminology, 29(3), pp.441- 467.

Choucri, N. (2012) Cyberpolitics in international relations. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Dasuki, M.S. (2013) 'Nigeria's Soft Approach to Countering Terrorism', Office of the National Security Adviser, Abuja.

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