THE INFLUENCE OF SUFI LITERATURE FROM THE ERA OF MIRZO ULUGʻBEK ON LATER PERIODS

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THE INFLUENCE OF SUFI LITERATURE FROM THE ERA OF MIRZO

ULUGʻBEK ON LATER PERIODS

Masudkhon Ismoilov

Associate ProfessorInternational Islamic Academy of Uzbekistan

Annotation:

The spiritual heritage of the peoples of Uzbekistan possesses a great history and

rich scientific-traditional foundations. This article analyzes the development of Sufi scientific

heritage in Central Asia during the Timurid era and subsequent centuries, focusing especially on

the activities and scholarly works of the Naqshbandiya-Mujaddidiya tariqa. Information is also

provided on the Sufi teachings of prominent thinkers such as Sheikh Khudoydod and Musokhon

Dahbedi and their works. The article emphasizes the importance of studying historical sources,

tafsirs, and scientific heritage. This research serves as a basis for broader investigation into the

legacy of Uzbek and Central Asian scholars.

Keywords:

Timurids, sufism, Naqshbandiya-Mujaddidiya, Sheikh Khudoydod, Musokhon

Dahbedi, scientific heritage, historical sources, tafsir, CentralAsia.

INTRODUCTION

The spiritual heritage of the peoples of Uzbekistan and Central Asia holds great value, making its

study highly important. This region has produced great scholars and thinkers such as Khwarazmi,

Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, Mirzo Ulughbek, and Alisher Navoi, who have made significant

contributions to scientific and spiritual progress. In the 17th and 18th centuries, extensive

research was also conducted in the field of Sufism in Central Asia. The Naqshbandi and Yasavi

Sufi orders, along with the works of scholars associated with them, remain important sources to

this day. This article aims to provide a brief overview of the scientific, spiritual, and Sufi

heritage of Central Asia.

MAIN PART

The spiritual heritage of the peoples of Uzbekistan has an ancient and rich history, and it remains

an urgent issue to study it comprehensively based on primary sources. Indeed, the written legacy

created by great thinkers and scholars from distant past times and preserved until today contains

important scientific information for current research.
In this regard, our President Shavkat Mirziyoyev, speaking from the high podium of the United

Nations, emphasized the value of peace and the necessity of preserving it, highlighting the

appropriateness of widely promoting the scientific heritage of the thinkers who emerged from

our land. In particular, on September 19, 2023, at the 78th session of the UN General Assembly,

the President stressed:
“Our homeland rightfully takes pride in being the birthplace of great scholars and thinkers such

as Khwarazmi, Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, Imam Bukhari, Mirzo Ulughbek, and Alisher Navoi, who

made invaluable contributions to the development of world science and presented Islam as a

religion of knowledge, enlightenment, and peace”

1

.

1

President Shavkat Mirziyoyev’s speech at the 78th session of the United Nations General Assembly,

September 19, 2023, president.uz.

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It is well known that the period of Amir Temur and the Timurid dynasty’s rule in Central Asia

was an era of significant political, socio-economic, and cultural development. Among the

scholars who lived during this time, numerous valuable works in various scientific fields have

been preserved. These works remained relevant in subsequent centuries, serving as important

references and sources for scholars composing new books. In particular, the Sufi texts written

during the Timurid era played a crucial role in the development of Sufi knowledge in later

periods. This is why many eighteenth-century sources also mention Sufi works created during

the Timurid period.
Research shows that during the era of Mirzo Ulughbek, numerous Sufi sources were also

produced. These texts subsequently served as guides for later Sufi practitioners. In this article,

we limit ourselves to briefly presenting some of these works, since the topic requires

comprehensive, dedicated study, which cannot be fully covered in a single article.
In the centuries following the fall of the Timurid dynasty in Central Asia, two main Sufi orders

the Naqshbandiyya and the Yasaviya were particularly active. Among the sheikhs who wrote

scholarly works, many lived during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As prime examples

of prolific authors, we may mention Sheikh Khudoydod and Musokhon Dahbediy.
Sheikh Khudoydod Toshmuhammad oglu Azizon Khorazmiy Bukhari (whom some researchers

also refer to as Khalifa Khudoydod)

2

was a Sufi sheikh and a distinguished spiritual guide of the

Yasaviya order, which held a significant place in the spiritual life of the peoples of Central Asia.
Very little information about his life and scholarly activity is found in the works of the scientific

figures of his time. For instance, Mulla Jumaquli Urguti (born in 1190 AH / 1776-77 CE, alive in

1269 AH / 1852 CE), a contemporary of Sheikh Khudoydod, mentioned him as one of the

sheikhs who practiced the jahr (audible) form of dhikr in his work Tarikhi Khumuliy

3

Regarding

this, he wrote:
“The greatest sheikhs (kubaro) of the jahr-practicing sheikhs of this century are Qutb al-Waqt

Islamshaykh

4

, Mawlavi Khudoydod Khorazmiy, and Mir Mahdum Saripuli”

5

.

As a representative of the Yassawiyya Sufi order, Shaykh Khudoydod actively promoted the

principles of this tradition. He authored several scholarly works in which he substantiated the

teachings of the Yassawiyya path and the methods of dhikr (remembrance of God) from a

scientific and theological perspective. When necessary, he cited examples from the Noble Qur’an

and Hadith, and he widely applied foundational principles of Islamic jurisprudence such as ijmaʿ

(scholarly consensus)

6

, and qiyās (analogical reasoning)

7

Among his works on Sufism are:Bahr

2

Kügelgen, A. F. The Flourishing of Naqshbandiya-Mujaddidiya in Central Transoxiana from the 18th to the Early

19th Century: An Attempt at Detective Investigation // Collection of Articles in Memory of Fritz Mayer. / Edited by

A. A. Khismatulin. - St. Petersburg: Faculty of Philology, St. Petersburg State University, 2001. - pp. 298–299.

3

Mulla Jum’aquli Urgutiy as-Samarqandi. Tarikhi Khumuli. - Manuscript No. 37/VI

4

During this period, the names of some sheikhs mentioned in historical works appear with variations.

For example, one of the Yasavi sheikhs, Islomshaykh, is referred to in one work as Sufi Islom Karruhi
(1138/1726-27–1222/1807-08). See: Muhammad Siddiq. Risolayi Mazoroti Herat. - Kabul, 1967. - pp.
157–254.

5

Tarikhi Khumuli. - fol. 223b.

6

Ijmaʿ - In Sharia law (Usul al-Fiqh), the consensus of contemporary scholars to issue a fatwa on a

particular issue.

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al-ʿUlūm (“The Ocean of Sciences”), Pisand-i Dhikr-i Jahr (“The Merit of Vocal Dhikr”),

Firdaws al-ʿUlamāʾ (“The Garden of the Scholars”), Bustān al-Muḥibbīn (“The Garden of the

Lovers”), Tanbīh al-Ḍāllīn (“Admonition to the Misguided”), Jāmiʿ al-Baḥrayn (“The

Confluence of the Two Seas”), Ṭarīqat al-Wuṣūl ilā-Llāh (“The Path to Attaining God”). Of

these, the first four have survived to the present day. According to his own statements in the

prefaces to his works, Shaykh Khudoydod composed these writings at the request of his friends

and disciples, and in response to the socio-political needs of his time

8

.

According to his own statements at the beginning of his works, Shaykh Khudoydod authored his

writings in response to the requests of his friends and disciples, and in consideration of the socio-

political demands of his time

9

.

In addition to the abovementioned scholarly works, Shaykh Khudoydod also engaged in

construction efforts, overseeing the building of mosques and madrasas

10

.

Another exemplary figure we wish to mention is Shaykh Musakhon Dahbediy, a prominent

representative of the Naqshbandiyya-Mujaddidiyya order in the 18th century. He authored a

number of scholarly treatises elaborating the core principles and theories of this Sufi path. The

Naqshbandiyya-Mujaddidiyya order entered the region of Mawarannahr toward the end of the

17th century through Hāji Habibullah Bukhari (d. 1111/1699–1700), a disciple and successor of

Muhammad Maʿsūm Sirhindī (d. 1079/1668), the third son and spiritual heir of Ahmad Sirhindī.

This Shaykh, also known by the title Eshon Hāji, became widely known in the region

11

. In his

work Makhāzin at-Taqwā (“Treasuries of God-Consciousness”), Mir Ḥusayn ibn Amīr Ḥaydar

refers to Hāji Habibullah as the mujaddid (renewer) of the 12th century AH

12

. Among the

disciples (khalīfas) of Hāji Habibullah were Khālifah Nawruz, Sufi Allāhyār (d. 1720), and

Muḥammad ʿĀbid (d. 1160/1747), who actively propagated the teachings of the Naqshbandiyya-

Mujaddidiyya order in the Bukhara Khanate during the first half of the 18th century.
Sufi Allāhyār, in particular, authored works covering topics in jurisprudence (fiqh), creed

(ʿaqīdah), and Sufi ethics and etiquette, such as Maslak al-Muttaqīn (“The Path of the God-

Fearing”) and Thabāt al-ʿĀjizīn (“The Perseverance of the Weak”).

7

Qiyas - In Sharia, analogy used as a proof to derive a ruling for a case based on the Qur’an, Hadith, or a

previously established ruling by Ijmaʿ.

8

The titles of these works are recorded at the beginning of Bahr al-Ulum (fol. 1a) in handwriting by an

unknown scribe.

9

Sheikh Khudoydod. Bahr al-Ulum. - Manuscript No. 2406/I, Uzbekistan Republican Fundamental

Scientific Library (UzRFAŠI). - fol. 1b.

10

For additional information, see: Caliph Khudoydod Collection, // Uzbekistan National Encyclopedia,

Vol. IX. - Tashkent: UME, 2005. - pp. 364–365.

11

Kügelgen A.F. The Flourishing of Naqshbandiya-Mujaddidiyya … - p. 290.

12

Mir Husayn ibn Amir Haydar. Makhazin at-Taqwa. - Manuscript No. 51, UzRFAŠI. - fol. 10b.

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“He also authored the works Murad al-ʿĀshiqīn (“The Desire of the Lovers”) and Makhzan al-

Muṭīʿīn (“The Treasury of the Obedient”)

13

. In recent years, we have written a commentary on

the work Thabāt al-ʿĀjizīn and published it

14

.

By the mid-18th century, among the Mujaddidiyya sheikhs in Mawarannahr, Musokhon Dahbedi

(d. 1190/1776), the khalifa of Muhammad Obid, and Jon Muhammad Kolobi

15

(d. 1174/1760),

the khalifa of Sofi Allohyor, continued the teachings of the Naqshbandiya-Mujaddidiyya tariqa.

At the same time, Muhammad Obid was not only an author of several works but also the spiritual

guide (murshid) of the tariqa sheikh Mirza Mazhar, known as Joni Jonon (d. 1195/1781)

16

.

Musokhon Dahbedi was a prominent sheikh in the spiritual life of Mawarannahr in the second

half of the 18th century. His pen produced numerous works on Sufism, among which the

following are notable:
Ashraf al-Khaliq (“The Most Honorable Servant of the Creator”)

17

, Tazkirat Kasir al-Fawa’id

(“Memorandum of Many Benefits”)

18

, Durar al-Asror wa Masnad al-Abrar (“Pearls of Secrets

and the Support of the Righteous”)

19

, Durr al-Maknun (“The Hidden Pearl”)

20

, Mukhtasar dar

Tasawwuf (“A Concise Treatise on Sufism”)

21

, Makzan at-Ta’aruf (“The Treasury of

Knowledge”)

22

, Ayn al-Ma’ani (“The Spring of Meanings”)

23

, Nawadir al-Ma’arif (“Rare

Knowledge”).
These works are attributed to him and constitute an important source for understanding his Sufi

teachings and perspectives

24

.

13

Sayyid Habibullah ibn Sayyid Yahyohon. Hadiyyat at-Talibin. Commentary on Sabot al-Ojizin. - p. 9.

(Publication details of this work are not specified). Commentary on Sabot al-Ojizin.

14

See: M. Ismoilov, A. Akbarov. Sharh-i Sabot al-Ojizin. Tashkent, 2018.

15

Mir Husayn ibn Amir Haydar. Makhazin at-Taqwa. - pp. 16–33.

16

Musokhon Dahbediy. Zubdat al-Haqa’iq. Manuscript No. 411, Uzbekistan Republican Fundamental

Scientific Library (UzRFAŠI). - fol. 4a.

17

Musokhon Dahbediy. Ashraf al-Khaliq. Manuscript No. 541/XI, UzRFAŠI.

18

Musokhon Dahbediy. Tazkirai Kasir al-Fawa’id. Manuscript No. 10171, UzRFAŠI.

19

Musokhon Dahbediy. Durar al-Asror wa Masnad al-Abror. Manuscript No. 10602, UzRFAŠI.

20

Musokhon Dahbediy. Durr al-Maknun. Manuscript No. 542/II, UzRFAŠI.

21

Musokhon Dahbediy. Mukhtasar dar Tasawwuf. Manuscript No. 6132/VI, UzRFAŠI.

22

Musokhon Dahbediy. Makhzan at-Taruf. Manuscript No. 511/X, UzRFAŠI.

23

Musokhon Dahbediy. Ayn al-Ma’ani. Manuscript No. 3995/I, UzRFAŠI.

24

Musokhon Dahbediy. Navodir al-Ma’arif. Manuscript No. 11706, Uzbekistan Republican Fundamental

Scientific Library (UzRFAŠI).

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It is known that Mirza Mazhar (Joni Jonon), the khalifa of Musokhon Dahbedi, also authored

Sufi works such as Diwan-i Mazhar and Risala dar Bayani Lata'ifi Ashara (“Treatise on the

Explanation of the Ten Subtle Points”)

25

.

Considering that most of these works were written after the 1770s, it can be concluded that by

the last quarter of the 18th century, Sufism in Mawarannahrespecially the teachings of the

Naqshbandiya-Mujaddidiyya tariqahad developed quite steadily. One of the reasons for the

increased influence of the Naqshbandiya-Mujaddidiyya tariqa compared to other Sufi orders was

the direct patronage of Amir Shohmurad towards this tariqa.

Most of the above-mentioned works used earlier treatises written during the Timurid period as

source materials. Below, we briefly touch upon some of these sources.

One of the important Sufi works is Silsilat al-‘Arifin wa Tadhkirat al-Siddiqin (“The Chain of

the Gnostics and the Memorandum of the Truthful”); authored by Muhammad ibn Burhanuddin

ibn Khojamuhammad Rizomuhammad al-Qazi (d. 921/1515). Born in Samarkand, he moved to

Andijan in 1510, where he lived until his death. He was a disciple of Khoja Ubaydullah Ahrar

and served as the spiritual guide (pir) of Muhammad Haidar, the author of Tarikh-i Rashidi.

Muhammad Qazi is also the author of Maqamat-i Khoja Ubaydullah Ahrar. The Silsilat al-

‘Arifin was written in 885/1480 and consists of an introduction, three chapters, and a

conclusion

26

.

The next work is Rawzat al-Ulama wa Nuzhat al-Fuzala (“The Garden of the Scholars and the

Excursion of the Virtuous”). It was authored by Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Yahya al-Bukhari al-

Zandawisti (d. 864/1459), who wrote this treatise in Arabic on theology and Sufism within the

framework of the Hanafi madhhab. The work consists of two parts, containing 107 chapters

along with their detailed index

27

.

In Bahr al-Ulum, the aforementioned work is explicitly mentioned by name, and numerous

quotations from it are cited in all chapters. Therefore, it can be concluded that this work was one

of the primary sources relied upon by Shaykh Khudoydod.

Another significant work is Hisn al-Hasin min Kalam Sayyid al-Mursalin (“The Strong Fortress

from the Words of the Chief of the Messengers”), authored by Shamsuddin Muhammad ibn

Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Jazari. The author composed several treatises dedicated to the

recitation (Qira’at) of the Qur’an. Following the defeat of Sultan Bayezid (d. 805/1402),

Shamsuddin Muhammad was brought to Samarkand as a captive of Amir Timur. He also lived in

Shahrisabz for some time. After the death of Sahibqiron (Amir Timur), he moved to Iran and

died in Shiraz in 833/1429.

In the introduction of Hisn al-Hasin (folios 1b-3a), the author explains the reason for composing

and naming the work. He recounts that during the conquest of Damascus by Amir Timur, while

sitting in a corner of the battlefield, he recited blessings (salawat), which protected him at the

time of death. Hisn al-Hasin was written on Saturday, 22 Dhu al-Hijjah 791 AH (12 December

1389), in Damascus.

Shaykh Khudoydod effectively utilized Hisn al-Hasin in Bahr al-Ulum, particularly in chapters

addressing purely Sufi topics such as “Advice to Disciples” and “Saintship (Wilayah)”

28

.

25

See also: Habibullah (Shamsuddin) Joni Jonon. Diwan-i Mazhar. Manuscript No. 924, UzRFAŠI; The

same author. Risala dar Bayani Lata’ifi Ashara. Manuscript No. 1498, UzRFAŠI.

26

SVR, Volume X, No. 6949, pp. 224–226.

27

Uzbekistan Republican Fundamental Scientific Library of the Academy of Sciences (UzRFAŠI)

manuscript, No. 3229; SVR, Volume VI, No. 4866.

28

SVR, Volume 4, No. 2941, pp. 102–107.

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Minhaj al-Muttaqin wa Mi’raj al-Mukhlesin (“The Path of the God-fearing and the Ascension of

the Sincere”) is a work authored by Sarimuddin Dawud ibn Kamil al-Mihlabiy. The treatise is

written in Arabic and addresses topics related to Sufism.

Shaykh Khudoydod made effective use of Minhaj al-Muttaqin in composing chapters 7 and 29 of

his Bahr al-Ulum, which discuss generosity and benevolence. He quotes from this work: “Junayd

al-Baghdadi (d. 297/909) said that four qualities elevate a person to the highest ranks, even if

their knowledge and deeds are minimal: forbearance, humility, generosity, and good character”

29

.

Besides this, Sufi authors such as Shaykh Khudoydod and Musokhon Dahbediy also utilized

Qur’anic commentaries (tafsirs) produced during the Timurid era when composing their works.
By the time of the Timurid rule, there was an increasing demand for tafsir literature, as

evidenced by the considerable number of tafsirs produced during this period. A distinctive

feature of many tafsirs written at this time is their composition primarily in Persian, often

employing an esoteric (ishari) style of commentary. Initially, these tafsirs contained explanations

for a limited number of surahs, but gradually the number of surahs covered expanded, and the

volume of the tafsir works grew accordingly.
Regarding tafsirs authored during the Timurid dynasty, the earliest known tafsir is titled Tafsir-i

Khwaja Muhammad Porsow. The author of this work was Khwaja Muhammad ibn Muhammad

ibn Mahmud al-Hafiziy al-Bukhari, famously known as Khwaja Muhammad Porsow. He was a

spiritual guide (pir) of the Naqshbandi order and authored numerous works across various fields

of knowledge

30

.The author composed this tafsir in the year 823 AH (1420-1421 CE) in Bukhara.

The tafsir is written in Persian and includes commentary on only eight surahs of the Qur’an: Al-

Fatiha, Al-Qadr, Al-Bayyina, Az-Zalzala, Al-Waqi'a (Al-Wadiyat), Al-Qaria, At-Takathur, Al-

Asr, and Al-Humaza

31

.

The next work attributed to a Sufi author is the Tafsir al-Charhiy, written by the renowned Sufi

scholar Allama Yakub ibn Usman ibn Mahmud ibn Muhammad Ghaznawi Charhiy (d. 851 AH /

1447 CE). Allama Charhiy authored numerous works on Naqshbandi teachings and various

religious sciences. In his Tafsir al-Charhiy, only 49 surahs of the Qur’an are commented upon,

29

Bahr al-ulum. – 476

b

.

30

Nearly twenty works by Khoja Muhammad Porsa have survived to the present day. Among these are

Risala al-Qudsiyya, Az Anfuzi Qudsiyya al-Mashayikhi Tariqat, I'tiqadat, Tahqiqaat, Tafsir Khoja
Muhammad Porsa, Al-Hadith al-Arba'un, Risala dar Adabi Murid (Treatise on the Ethics of Discipleship),
Risala al-Kashfiya, Risala al-Mahbubiya, Sharh fiqh al-Kaydani, Fasl al-Khitab bi-Wusuli Ahbab, Mukhtasar
Tarikh Makkah, Fusul Sitta, Maktub Khoja Muhammad Porsa wa Mawlono Zaynuddin, Maqamat Khoja
Alauddin Attar, Maqamat Khoja Bahuddin Naqshband, among other works. These manuscripts are
currently preserved in the collection of the Uzbekistan Republican Fundamental Scientific Library of the
Academy of Sciences (UzZFAŠI).

31

A manuscript copy of the work is preserved in the collection of the Uzbekistan Republican

Fundamental Scientific Library of the Academy of Sciences (UzRFAŠI) under the registration number
2180. This manuscript contains the autograph signatures of the author as well as those of prominent
figures in the Sufi world, including Abdurahman Jami and Abu Nasr Porsa, the eldest son of Khoja
Muhammad Porsa.

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from Al-Fatiha to An-Nas. This work has been preserved to the present day, and manuscript as

well as printed copies are kept in many libraries worldwide

32

.

Compared to the aforementioned works, a more comprehensive tafsircovering 66 surahs of the

Qur’an (from Surah Qaf to Surah An-Nas) and written in Arabicwas authored by Abdurahman

Jami (1414–1492). It is well-known in scholarship that Jami composed numerous works, some of

which have been studied extensively. Although his contributions to Qur’anic exegesis remain

relatively less explored, it is likely that later scholars referred to his tafsir alongside his other

writings

33

.

CONCLUSION

Overall, during the reign of Amir Timur and the Timurid dynasty, alongside other fields, science

and culture in Central Asia flourished significantly. Among these developments, the teachings of

Sufism advanced, and the Naqshbandi order, which remains active to this day, was firmly

established. The Sufi scholars who lived during the era of Mirzo Ulughbek authored scholarly

works that illuminated the theoretical foundations of this order. These works subsequently served

as foundational reference sources for Sufi sheikhs in the following centuries.

32

Additionally, more than 25 manuscript copies of the work are preserved within the UzRFAŠI collection,

most of which have been scientifically catalogued (see: SVR, Volume IX, p. 435; UzRFAŠI manuscripts,
No. 6642; No. 6661).

33

To date, only one manuscript copy of this particular tafsir is known, which is kept in the main fund of

UzRFAŠI under the registration number 2702.