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EARLY MEDIEVAL KHOREZM: SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND THE
EVOLUTION OF URBAN LIFE
Matyakubova Shahodat Khamidjanovna
Urgench Ranch Technological University
Teacher at the Department of Social Sciences
Abstract:
This article analyzes the socio-economic development of the Khorezm oasis in the
early Middle Ages and the formation of urban life. It examines the development of agriculture,
crafts, and trade, the formation of artificial irrigation systems, and the role of large families in
society. The study also explores Zoroastrian beliefs, temples, religious symbols, and the
significance of bird depictions. Based on archaeological sites such as Ayazqala, the discovery of
Khorezmshah Shram’s coins and the development of urban culture are analyzed.
Keywords:
Khorezm, early Middle Ages, agriculture, irrigation system, Zoroastrianism,
archaeological sites, Ayazqala, urban culture, trade routes, Khorezmshah Shram’s coins.
ILK O‘RTA ASRLARDA XORAZM: IJTIMOIY-IQTISODIY TARAQQIYOT VA
SHAHAR HAYOTINING RIVOJLANISHI
Matyakubova Shahodat Xamidjanovna
Urganch Ranch texnologiya universiteti,
Ijtimoiy fanlar kafedrasi o’qituvchisi
Annotatsiya:
Mazkur maqolada ilk o‘rta asrlarda Xorazm vohasining ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy
rivojlanishi va shahar hayotining shakllanishi tahlil qilingan. Dehqonchilik, hunarmandchilik va
savdo-sotiqning rivojlanishi, sun’iy sug‘orish tizimlarining shakllanishi va jamiyatdagi katta
oilalarning roli ko‘rib chiqilgan. Shuningdek, zardushtiylik e’tiqodi, ibodatxonalar, diniy ramzlar,
jumladan, qush tasvirlarining ma’nosi ham tadqiq etilgan. Ayozqal’a va boshqa yodgorliklar
asosida Xorazmshoh Shram tangalarining topilishi va shahar madaniyatining rivojlanishi tahlil
qilingan.
Kalit so‘zlar:
Xorazm, ilk o‘rta asrlar, dehqonchilik, sug‘orish tizimi, zardushtiylik, arxeologik
yodgorliklar, Ayozqal’a, shahar madaniyati, savdo yo‘llari, Xorazmshoh Shram tangalari.
РАННЕСРЕДНЕВЕКОВЫЙ ХОРЕЗМ: СОЦИАЛЬНО-ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЕ
РАЗВИТИЕ И СТАНОВЛЕНИЕ ГОРОДСКОЙ ЖИЗНИ
Матякубова Шаходат Хамиджановна
Ургенчский технологический университет РАНЧ
Преподаватель кафедры социальных наук
Аннотация:
В данной статье проанализировано социально-экономическое развитие
Хорезмского оазиса в раннем Средневековье и формирование городской жизни.
Рассмотрены развитие земледелия, ремесел и торговли, формирование систем
искусственного орошения и роль больших семей в обществе. Также изучено
зороастрийское вероисповедание, храмы, религиозные символы, включая изображение
птиц. На основе археологических памятников, таких как Аёзкала, исследовано
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обнаружение монет Хорезмшаха Шрама и развитие городской культуры.
Ключевые слова:
Хорезм, раннее Средневековье, земледелие, ирригационная система,
зороастризм, археологические памятники, Аёзкала, городская культура, торговые пути,
монеты Хорезмшаха Шрама.
Introduction.
The Khorezm region is one of the oldest civilizations in Central Asia, with its
socio-economic development and urban life reaching a significant stage in the early Middle Ages.
During this period, the development of irrigation systems, the expansion of agriculture and
handicrafts led to the formation of large cities in Khorezm. The widespread practice of
Zoroastrianism and its symbolic and spiritual influence played a crucial role in the social life of
the community.
Literature Review.
The study of Khorezm’s history has been significantly enriched by research
conducted by both local and foreign scholars. The works of Abu Rayhan Beruni serve as primary
sources in understanding the socio-economic structure of the Khorezm region. In his work
“History of Khorezm,” Beruni provides valuable insights into the cities, irrigation systems, and
economic activities of the region. Additionally, studies by scholars such as N.Ya. Bichurin, S.P.
Tolstov, and L.M. Levina extensively discuss the processes of urbanization and the importance
of trade routes in Khorezm.
Methodological Approaches.
The research employs historical-comparative, archaeological, and
ethnographic methods. The historical-comparative approach allows for the analysis of the
economic and cultural conditions of early medieval Khorezm in comparison with other regions.
Archaeological excavations provide insights into the urban structures of ancient cities such as
Ayaz-Kala, Topraq-Kala, and Khazarasp.
Analysis.
In the Khorezm region, the development of agriculture based on artificial irrigation
required collective labor to ensure high crop yields. Managing irrigation systems, regulating
water flow, and maintaining the infrastructure were beyond the capacity of individual families.
As a result, collective agricultural efforts became essential. Furthermore, experienced farmers
played a crucial role in maximizing crop production. Only those with significant expertise in
agriculture could properly manage tasks such as sowing, irrigation, and crop maintenance.
Consequently, collective farming was beneficial for all members of the community.
During the early Middle Ages, the population of Khorezm practiced Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrian
temples were built in urban areas, such as Ayaz-Kala 2. In residential buildings and fortresses,
special fire chambers known as Atashkada were constructed to maintain sacred fire. In the 6th–
7th centuries, Zoroastrian deities were depicted using bird, animal, and plant symbols. The
rooster, pigeon, and peacock symbolized the sun, while the lion represented the deity Mithra.
Initially, Mithra was considered a god of contracts and agreements in Zoroastrianism, but over
time, he was revered as a warrior and a solar deity.
The image of birds was also widely respected in the early medieval period. Some rulers even
incorporated bird symbols into their crowns. Scholars suggest that bird feathers may have
symbolized Umay Ana (Mother Goddess) in the early
Turkic belief system. The perception of birds as sacred beings in Turkic culture likely reflects
beliefs about souls and spirits, as well as the concept of the “soul bird.” The divine nature of
birds and their association with state power is also mentioned in the Avesta. Additionally, an
old saying has been preserved from ancient times: “The bird of fortune has landed on your
head,” symbolizing prosperity and success. Even in the 20th century, women in Khorezm wore
traditional skullcaps adorned with bird feathers, a custom that remains a part of national dress.
Inscriptions from the 2nd–3rd centuries AD found in Topraq-Kala and ossuaries from the
Toqq-Qala monument of the 8th century provide valuable historical insights into the early
medieval period \[1, p. 304\].
Near Ayaz-Kala 2 , remains of an early medieval fortress were discovered. Built in the 4th–5th
centuries, the fortress shows traces of two major fires, after which it ceased to function in its
original capacity. However, in the 6th–7th centuries, it was repurposed for residential use. The
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fortress’s large rooms were subdivided into smaller living spaces using pillars, possibly to
improve living conditions for its inhabitants. Archaeological layers of the fortress contained
large bronze coins issued by the Khorezmian ruler Shram \[9, p. 170\].
The obverse of Shram’s coins depicts the ruler wearing a crown shaped like a two-humped camel.
The reverse side features an image of a horseman. Another coin was found in a lower cultural
layer, though its design is poorly preserved. The headdress of the ruler depicted on the coin
resembles that of the Saka people, with the top part folded forward into a small knot-like shape.
Some of these coins bear inscriptions in Bravik script.
This fortress was constructed in a square layout. On the northern side, there were rooms
designated for various ceremonies, built using large adobe bricks (42-43 x 42-43 x 10 cm). The
fortress contained around 40 rooms, including two large halls located on the southern side of the
building. These halls were supported by two rows of columns along their length. The stone bases
of these columns have been preserved, showing variations in their design. Some were built on
square bases with a bowl-like shape, while others had a simple rectangular structure.
One of the halls (Hall 27) may have been used for large gatherings, as the walls contained
relatively low benches. The capitals of the columns were finely crafted. After the fortress was
abandoned, smaller framed rooms were built within it. According to researchers, this
modification may have been made to enable efficient heating with minimal fire usage. Small
benches made of bricks were found inside these rooms, and their surfaces were plastered with
clay.
In the second hall (Hall 26), a large rectangular brick bench was built in the center, with
additional benches along the walls. The narrow gap between the central bench and the wall
benches suggests that it might have been designed for guests to place their feet while attending a
banquet. This hall may have been intended for festivities. In Eastern traditions, singers and
dancers typically performed in the center, while spectators sat around them. The function of Hall
28 remains uncertain. Its walls featured multiple tall, narrow niches, and a large brick structure
was located in the southwestern corner. This structure was surrounded by four partially preserved
columns. The floor of the hall was filled with baked clay fragments. Researchers believe that
statues might have once stood in these spaces, similar to findings from Topraq-Kala (an ancient
site from the classical period) and Ustrushana (an early
Room 14, located in the southwestern part of the fortress, was likely used for religious rituals. Its
perimeter was lined with benches, and a brick-built Atashkada (fire altar) was discovered there.
The bricks had been repeatedly exposed to fire, making them highly durable. Opposite the fire
altar, an arched recess was constructed. The roof of the rooms was supported by six columns
arranged in two rows.
Room 15 may have been designated for religious feasts, as evidenced by the discovery of a
hearth and ceramic kitchenware. The northern section of the fortress contained residential areas,
courtyards, passageways, and storage facilities. The northeastern section is believed to have
housed the fortress’s elite residents. Three interconnected rooms were found in this area, one of
which contained a large central Atashkada. The surrounding surfaces were burned red,
indicating that the fire burned continuously. Some researchers suggest that this room was used
for storing religious artifacts. Another room had a raised platform built in one corner.
The fortress’s rooms were arranged around a large central hall. Although the hall itself is not
fully preserved, its column bases and traces of colorful decorations suggest that it was
elaborately designed. The preserved pigments include lilac, pink, red, and black. However,
researchers were unable to determine the exact imagery depicted in the paintings.
The fortress was connected to Ayaz-Kala 2 via a ramp and covered a combined area of 25
hectares \[10, p.74\]. Based on evidence of two-story buildings and residences for different social
classes, researchers have interpreted this fortress as an early medieval city. Alongside uniform
residential buildings, large koshk -style structures were identified. These buildings had thick
walls and central arched rooms.
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Medieval cities and villages were built in areas with artificial irrigation systems. The Gaukhar
canal, dating back to the medieval period, passed near Ayaz-Kala 2 . It is likely that the fortress
was also supplied with water from this major canal.
Archaeological research in the 1970s led to the discovery of an early medieval settlement known
as A Fortress in the Yakka-Parson oasis. Initial excavations were conducted as trial studies,
while more comprehensive research took place between 1982 and 1983 \[5, p.172\].
Results.
(A Fortress is located 2.5 km south of Ayaz-Kala 2 and dates back to the Afrighid
period. However, its architectural layout from the 7th–8th centuries has been well preserved. The
site contains evidence of a major fire, after which it was temporarily abandoned. It is believed to
have served as a noble residence.
The second phase of the fortress’s construction dates to the 9th–10th centuries. Some researchers
suggest that during this period, the fortress may have been converted into a mosque \[7, p.185\].
The fortress was built in a square layout measuring 36x36 meters. Its outer walls were made of
pakhsa (compacted clay), with a thickness of 1.85 meters, while the inner walls were between
0.5 and 0.9 meters thick. Unlike other defensive structures, the fortress lacked towers and
fortifications.
The northern part of the fortress contained residential areas, while the southern part featured a
large open courtyard. Along the eastern wall, there were passage-like structures consisting of two
parallel walls. The rooms in the fortress varied in construction, indicating a lack of symmetry in
the architectural design.
At the center of the residential section stood an ayvan (open veranda) with brick walls. The
ayvan was surrounded by three rooms of different sizes. Its southern section was open, facing
the courtyard. The ayvan measured 2.76 meters in width and 4.36 meters in length. Its floor was
paved with adobe bricks, and a raised platform measuring 1 meter wide and 0.2 meters high was
built at the back.
Two cylindrical stoves were attached to the platform. One stove, located in the southwestern
corner, had a slightly elevated step-like structure. The second stove was built closer to the center
of the platform. Neither stove had a chimney, but both contained large amounts of charcoal and
ash deposits, indicating prolonged use.
The fortress contained a large hall with four columns. This hall was surrounded by a raised
platform or shelf. In the second phase of construction, during the 7th–8th centuries, the room was
converted into a storage facility \[8, p.178\]. All the rooms of the fortress opened onto a central
ayvan (veranda), where a pool was located. The pool measured 7.8 × 7.8 meters with a depth of
1.32 meters. Its walls were lined with ceramic tiles, and a staircase on the southern side provided
access to the water.
Elkharos, an ancient city built in the classical period, contained cultural layers dating to the
Afrighid period. Pottery fragments from the second half of the 5th century to the early 6th
century were found in the southern part of the western building, while ceramics from the early
Afrighid period (3rd–4th centuries) were discovered in the northern transverse corridor \[3,
p.111\]. These artifacts mainly consisted of large jars, both handmade and wheel-thrown. The
pottery from the late 5th to early 6th centuries featured horizontal and spiral red-painted
decorations. Various kabura (ceramic vessels) were also uncovered. Handmade ceramics
contained numerous mineral additives and lime, which resulted in lower quality craftsmanship.
Most early medieval pottery found in Elkharos was handmade. M.A. Itina classified these
artifacts into four groups: 1. Archaic and Classical Period Ceramics. 2. Late 3rd – Early 4th
Century Handmade Ceramics. 3. 5th–6th Century Ceramics (less frequently found). 4. 10th–
11th Century Ceramics (very limited quantity).
Ceramics from the early Afrighid period were found in 16 rooms of Elkharos. Two rooms
contained numerous large storage jars. In the eastern building, hearths, pottery fragments, and
numerous bone remains were found in nine rooms. Researchers suggest that this area was
inhabited by a large number of people over a long period.
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During the Afrighid rule, the majority of the population practiced Zoroastrianism. However, the
invasion and rule of Turkic tribes introduced other religious influences, impacting the local belief
system. This is reflected in the analysis of coins, where the depiction of rulers' crowns, facial
features, and clothing styles indicate cultural and political shifts.
The earliest known Zoroastrian temple in the Khorezm region, dating to the 5th–4th centuries
BCE, was located in Elkharos. Fragments of clay statues covered with gypsum plaster were
found in this temple. These statues featured various geometric and plant motifs painted in
different colors.
When Kutayba ibn Muslim conquered Khorezm in 711, he sought to eradicate Zoroastrianism.
He executed scholars, scribes, priests, and anyone literate in local scripts. Local books were
burned, and he waged an aggressive campaign to impose new religious beliefs. However, despite
these efforts, the people of Khorezm sought to preserve their ancestral faith. They continued
practicing their rituals in secret and maintained sacred fire altars.
For example, in Jigarband , a special room from the 10th century contained a low fire altar
shaped like a human figure. Researchers believe this altar symbolized Ona-Olov (Mother Fire).
Fire altars from the classical and early medieval periods were typically built on raised
foundations, standing 0.5–2 meters above the ground, and designed as either pillars or open
containers \[4, p.53\].
Conclusion.
Although early medieval trade routes passing through Khorezm have not been
extensively studied, it is likely that they followed the paths of ancient trade networks.
Information about the use of ancient trade routes along the left bank of the Amu Darya during
the 6th–8th centuries is scarce. Due to this lack of data, some researchers suggest that trade
relations weakened during the early medieval period compared to ancient times \[6, p.141\].
The ancient cities of Darg‘on, Jigarband, Sadvar, Khazarasp, Kaparas, and Elkharos were
established along major trade routes, which allowed them to remain active throughout the early
medieval period. These regions experienced their peak development in the 10th century when
multiple trade routes connected Khorezm with southern regions.
Trade routes passing along the left bank of the Amu Darya primarily linked Khurasan with
Gurganj. The most significant trade route extended from Bukhara to Farab, following the Amu
Darya’s right bank before reaching Kat, a major city of the time.
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Antiquities of Southern Khorezm. // THAE. v. XVI. – M.: Nauka, 1991. – P.111.
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Nezarik E.E. Estate in the Yakke-Parsan osasis. – P.172.
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