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STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
PHARMACEUTICAL TERMS AND NEOLOGISMS
Dlafruz Kabildjanovna Khudoyqulova
Researcher, Department of Uzbek language and literature, Faculty of Industrial
Pharmacy, Tashkent Pharmaceutical Institute, Tashkent, Uzbekistan.
Аkhmedov Oybek Saporbayevich
Doctor of Science in Philology, Professor of the Department English Teaching
Methodology, Uzbek State World Languages University, Tashkent, Uzbekistan.
E-mail address: ahmedov.oybek@mail.ru
Abstract:
This scientific article discusses the derivational affixes borrowed from Latin
into English as well as Uzbek and Russian languages recorded in lexicographic
sources and the peculiarities of their functioning in pharmaceutical terminology.
Discusses the causes and conditions for the emergence of new words (neologisms) in
the English language, and analyzes the special role of compounding (compound
words) in the formation of neologisms in terms of word formation. Therefore, the
results of a number of foreign scientific researches were discussed. The study
concluded that structural and semantic features of pharmaceutical terminology in
three languages are an effective method of forming neologisms and that their study is
a requirement of our time.
Keywords:
terminological system, structural and semantic features,
terminological combinations, pharmaceutical terminology, productive derivative
series, word-formation elements, neologism, professional language.
Introduction
. Language is a phenomenon so unique and multifaceted that it
research will never be exhausted. The replenishment of the dictionary with new
lexical units is one of the main and driving factors in the development of the
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language. The material wealth of a particular nation is certainly reflected in the
language (its vocabulary). The more developed the spheres of society, the more new
words are “born” in the language.
At present, the medical branch vocabulary, like many other branches of science
is developing; research on new vocabulary to help people communicate successfully
should be conducted continuously. A huge influx of new words and the need to
describe them led to the creation of a special branch of lexicology - neology - the
science of neologisms - new words denoting new objects and concepts, but not yet
included in the active vocabulary of the language. [5] However, the theory of neology
in English studies has not yet taken shape as an independent area of lexicology. The
medical industry of the second half of the twentieth century is especially replete with
new terms. As Tatarinov notes, in order to include a word in the dictionary of
neologisms, it is required that it be used for a year, however, in the lexicographic
center of the University of Oxford, a period of five years is allocated for this, which
contributes to the exclusion of the possibility fixing all kinds of ephemeral words and
occasionalisms.
Pharmaceuticals as a science is replete with terms, i.e. words and phrases
denoting scientific concepts that reflect the essential properties and characteristics of
an object. A characteristic feature of the term is that it is necessarily included in a
certain terminological field. As in other branches of science, terms are often formed
as a result of metaphorical transference. The terms are adjoined by nomenclature
words that designate specific objects and objects related to a certain area of human
activity, most often professional. Meanwhile, according to R. Burchfield, the English
language is replenished with 800 new words per year - this figure is much more than
in any language in the world. This factor actualizes the problem of not only
displaying new words in dictionaries, but also studying them. According to the
statistics of scientists, less than 5% of the terminology of medicine has Anglo-Saxon
roots, the vast majority of terms are of Greek, Latin, Arabic, French, German or
Italian origin. For example, antibiotic (French from Greek) - антибиотик, target
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(Italian) - мишень, acetilscholin (gr.+ German) - ацетилшолин, canceradeux (gr. +
fr.) - рак двоих, biohazard (gr. - Arab .) - биологически риск.
In pharmaceutical terminology, the neologization of the new era was directly
related to the emergence of a new bourgeois society and to the expansion of the need
for new terms, which led to the need to improve the systematics of medical realities
and their nominations.
A generic terminological unit appeared. The basis of such a unit was such a phrase
that could connect reality with its species and genus. But the original genus and
species nominations did not linguistically express their essence. Gradually, when
with another lack of elements nouns and adjectives switched to the use of verbal
elements, a situation arose of modeling really new terms that were already directly
related to medical semantics.
The new terminology becomes monosemic at the model level but gradually
acquires its own polysemy, synonymy, forms its own abbreviation and eponymy,
using morphemes from different languages. It follows that the term in medicine is a
historical concept and phenomenon [I, 32, 38].
In pharmaceutical terminology, the neologization of the new era was directly related
to the emergence of a new bourgeois society and to the expansion of the need for new
terms, which led to the need to improve the systematics of medical realities and their
nominations. A generic terminological unit appeared. The basis of such a unit was
such a phrase that could connect reality with its species and genus. But the original
genus and species nominations did not linguistically express their essence. Gradually,
when with another lack of elements nouns and adjectives switched to the use of
verbal elements, a situation arose of modeling really new terms that were already
directly related to medical semantics. The new terminology becomes monosemic at
the model level, but gradually acquires its own polysemy, synonymy, forms its own
abbreviation and eponymy, using morphemes from different languages. It follows
that the term in medicine is a historical concept and phenomenon.
Research methods
are determined by the characteristics of the material, the set
goal and objectives. During the work, the following methods were used:
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1. descriptive as the main method;
2. the method of theoretical analysis of scientific data on pharmaceutical
terminology;
3. methods of classification and systematization;
4. reception of derivational analysis.
Pharmaceutical terminology conforms, the strict laws of functioning of any
terminological system, the main principle of which is the creation of a term that is the
result of theoretical generalization and most accurately reflects the essence of the
phenomenon. The formation of the terminological apparatus is unconditionally
influenced by general linguistic processes: the law of consistency, the law of
linguistic tradition, which, in turn, collides with the law of linguistic analogy, the law
of speech economy, the law of antinomy. Having analyzed all the subsystems of
pharmaceutical and medical terminology, we came to the conclusion that different
affix elements dominate in different subsystems.
In pharmaceutical terminology, Latin derivational formants are widely represented,
usually final, suffix:
-in, -ol, -ur (a), -or,
etc. All of them are semantically labeled and
perform strictly defined functions.
Some thermoelements in different subsystems mark different semantic fields of
connotation, for example,
the -ur (a)
suffix in clinical and pharmaceutical
terminology with the general meaning “action result” reflect different cognitive
meanings of scientific and professional vocabulary. Latinisms and neolatinisms in
pharmaceutical terminology are a special characteristic feature of the language of
medicine and pharmacy, which provides the terminological potential of the scientific
language and a high degree of internationality of nominative units.
We can consider the following conclusions as the result of the research:
1. The derivation system of the language of pharmaceutical terminology has its own
collection of derivational formants of Latin origin, which are included in a special
system of terminological meanings;
2. Analysis of the derivational features of medical terminology as the basis of the
language of medicine indicates that all derivational means, abstract in their
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categorical meaning, when functioning in professional medical terminology become
markers, representatives of the subjective-derivational attitude and acquire additional
functions.
Thus, we can say that the structures of special knowledge are objectified in
word-formation formants, which serve as the basis for understanding the professional
linguistic space necessary for a future doctor. The need to study these cognitive
ciphers for professional purposes is the reason for the interest in this area of medical
terminology. It is of great interest to identify the causes of the emergence and
development of sectoral neoplasms in accordance with extralinguistic and linguistic
factors in the terminology system of modern English medicine. As a result, it seems
very relevant to study the main ways and means of their explication and lexical
fixation.
In our case, we will talk about pharmaceuticals and about new words-terms, the
process of their emergence in medicine continuously. It should be noted that
neologisms, or words that have arisen to denote new concepts, are heterogeneous in
nature, and this heterogeneity is due to the distinction between the novelty of the
word form and the novelty of the denotation, which is embodied in this form. Based
on this, neologisms are divided into lexical and stylistic.
Stylistic neologisms are words or new meanings of old words that denote
already existing concepts and objects.
Heart failure
:
Heart failure (HF) is a complex clinical syndrome that results from either
functional or structural impairment of ventricles resulting in symptomatic left
ventricle (LV) dysfunction [https://www.physio-pedia.com/Heart_Failure].
Current concepts and management
- Heart failure: modern concepts and
treatment.
Lexical neologisms, most of which are terms or nomenclature words, are new
or old words to denote new objects, phenomena, concepts.
Sign mutation
- мутация
Pilot study
– синов тажрба
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Case-control study -
Исследование случай-контроль – это тип
обсервационного наблюдения, в котором две исследуемые группы,
различающиеся по полученному результату, сравниваются на основе
предполагаемого влияющего фактора.
Red hypertension
- доброкачественная (артериальная) гипертензия
Body area network -
Нательная компьютерная сеть — беспроводная сеть
надеваемых компьютерных устройств.
Opportunistic pneumonia
– пневмония вызванная условно-патогенными
микроорганизмами.
Lexical neologisms appear in the language to name new objects and concepts,
to consolidate new concepts in the language; stylistic neologisms arise in the
language in order to give new, sometimes more expressive names to already existing
objects and concepts, or to designate already existing concepts with new words.
So, the object of this analysis is the neologism words of the sublanguage of medicine.
The material for the analysis was articles from special pharmaceutical literatures.
Provided that in the target language there is no dictionary correspondence to
one or another word of the original, it becomes especially important not only to
convey the main meaning of new lexical units in the most adequate way, but also to
clearly present the information contained in them. The translation of such terms is
combined with the obligatory inclusion of the interpretation of the concept or even a
reference in order to reveal a special component in the meaning of the word. To
understand the meaning of a new term, a translator must first of all understand the
nature of their formation, since in many cases even the most modern dictionaries do
not provide a translation of neologisms. Knowing how neologisms are constructed, it
is easier to guess their meaning.
1. Neologisms are formed primarily with the help of productive prefixes and
suffixes. In English, as in a number of other languages, prefixes and suffixes are
divided, in terms of their actual use, into two categories. The first category is the
living, productive suffixes and prefixes used in modern language (for example,
“less”,
which can be added to almost any word). The second - unproductive affixes
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and prefixes, through which new words in the English language are not formed (for
example,
“ment
”, which cannot be added to any newly formed word). For us, only
productive suffixes are important. When faced with an unfamiliar word that contains
a productive affix, you need to turn to the dictionary. Having consulted the dictionary
about the meaning of the affix and the main part of the word, you can understand the
meaning of the whole combination. Neologisms have to be translated mostly
descriptively. For example: “
breatharians
” - who believe in eating only thin air.
Particularly productive for the formation of neologisms are the prefixes "
over
-" and
"
under
-", indicating respectively the excess and lack of something, for example:
overaction
- hyperfunction;
overdose
- excessive dose;
overbreathin
-
hyperventilation, hyperpnea;
Underweight
- weight reduction; undernourishment -
exhaustion, hypotrophy.
The
–er
suffix serves to form a new word with the meaning of a person
performing an action, or a device, device, device:
binder -
An excipient used to
increase powder cohesiveness, which increases the bonding strength of the final
product. In wet granulation, they help to form
agglomerates;
sleeper
- a person who
sleeps
over-sleeper
- a person who sleeps more than is required;
downer
- depressant
substance,
pain-killer
- analgesic,
non-smoker and total abstainer
- one who does not
smoke and completely abstain from smoking;
Biowaiver-
an exemption from the
need to perform a clinical bioequivalence study under certain circumstances.
Biowaivers are possible in the USA, in Europe and in Japan, but the requirements for
achieving a biowaiver differ in these countries. In the USA and Europe the biowaiver
is potentially available for rapidly dissolving formulations of BCS class 1 drugs.
2. Neologisms are often formed by conversion, that is, by a change in the
syntactic function of a word. In this case, the noun becomes a verb or an adjective;
the verb takes on the functions of a noun, etc. To make a correct translation, it is
necessary to rethink the given word in relation to its new function. For example: They
drug him. – They drug him. How does the organ function? - How does this div
work?
3.
Neologisms are often formed by abbreviating words.
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CGMP
:
Current Good Manufacturing Practices
- Текущая надлежащая
производственная практика;
GAMP
:
Good Automated Manufacturing Practice
-
Надлежащая практика автоматизированного производства.
Anonymous
screening
- анонимный скрининг,
hygienic monitoring
- гигиенический
мониторинг,
nonspecific symptomatic complex
- неспецифический комплекс
симптомов,
genetic modification
(GM) - генетическая модификация,
genetically
modified organisms
(GMOS) – генетически модифицированные организмы,
transgenic products – трансгенные продукты, detox – детокс, laser – лазер,
electronic
stethoscope
–
электронный
стетоскоп,
teleconsultation
–
телеконсультация,
online consultation
– онлайн-консультация,
cognitive therapy
-
когнитивная терапия, pharmaceutical technology industry - индустрия
фармацевтическич технологий and many others.
4.
Sometimes neologisms are formed by analogy with existing words.
Normotensives
- normotonic, by analogy with the nouns
hypertensives
and
hypotensives [https://www.medicinenet.com/normotensive/definition.htm]
.
5. Composition at the present stage of development of the English vocabulary is the
most active way to replenish it. In addition, compound words are very difficult to
translate, since, unlike suffix derivatives, they are characterized by an infinite variet y
of expressed relations. When translating complex neologisms, there is a way of
rearranging the components.
immunoreconstitution
- восстановление иммунной
реактивности организма;
immunosuppression
- подавление иммунитета.
6. Sometimes neologisms are formed by adding a participle or adjective to a
particular noun. An attributive group is formed, which needs to be rethought and an
adequate translation formulated to designate a new concept.
Histologically documented reference group
-
наблюдаемая группа с
проведенной гистологией,
Day-case laparoscopy
– лапароскопия (операция),
выполненная амбулаторно,
Drug-related adverse events
– побочные реакции,
связанные с приемом лекарств.
More recently, the term “
validation
” has appeared in pharmaceutical chemistry.
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And only specialists in this field will explain that validation is reproducibility,
formulation is a dosage form in non-dosed drugs, as opposed to dosage form is a
dosage form of a drug.
The development of a drug product is a lengthy process involving drug
discovery, laboratory testing, animal studies, clinical trials and regulatory
registration. To further enhance the effectiveness and safety of the drug product after
approval, many regulatory agencies such as the United States Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) also require that the drug product be tested for its identity,
strength, quality, purity and stability before it can be released for use
[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26576861_Validation_An_Essentiality_In
_The_Pharmacy].
The most common possibilities in transferring the meaning of a word in
translation are: 1) in the target language there is no dictionary correspondence to one
or another word of the original; 2) the match is incomplete; 3) different words in the
target language correspond to different meanings of the original word. The
phenomenon of non-equivalence does not occur in its pure form. Adequate
translation of neologistic words is achieved in various ways, the most common of
which are descriptive translation, translation by analogy, rearrangement of
components, etc. Transliteration is predominant in the English medical language as a
way to adequately convey the meaning of a new word.
The most widely used term in the world for the last 2 years is related to
coronavirus infection; it is not surprising that the word coronavirus has taken root, in
which we recognize the understandable words corona and the virus, and not the more
scientific, but completely incomprehensible name of
COVID-19
. The word
coronavirus
, in turn, has extended many words starting with "crown",
corona
manifestation, corona fake, corona panic, corona skeptics
and etc.
Due to the fact that now everyone is trying to buy masks and disinfecting
liquids in pharmacies, the word
sanitizer
has come into use, and since at the entrance
to public places you can measure the temperature with a special device -
a thermal
imager
, this word has also ceased to be a little-known term.
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The word
self-isolation
is completely new. Until recently, it seemed that only
someone vested with power decides when and for how long to isolate patients with a
contagious disease from other people.
It seems that right now, after the coronavirus pandemic announced by the
World Health Organization, another new word has appeared in the language -
infodemic
: an increase in the flow of information about the epidemic, often false and
exaggerated. It is interesting that the words
infodemia
are formed from two words -
information and epidemic
- a new way of word formation for the language. We have
to call it the English word blending, which is the same root with the name of the
electrical appliance blender, which is used to prepare a homogeneous mixture
(mashed potatoes, mashed soups, mousses) from different ingredients. Blending is
not a compounding, when two roots are added or the initial parts of words, but a
fancy mixture of two words, in which part of the first word is replaced by part of
another, while one or two letters can be taken from the first word, but from the
second - the last part. Blending is extremely common in the English language, in this
way such widely used borrowed words from the English language as motel (
from
motel = motor + hotel
), smog (
from smog = smoke + fog
), brunch (
from brunch =
breakfast + lunch
) and the relatively new word is brexit (see above). The coronavirus
has led to the emergence of new blender words in the English language, the most
popular of which is
covidiot
(COVID + idiot) - already included in the Urban
Dictionary online dictionary of words and phrases in English slang and picked up by
Russian Internet users, so that in Russian you can meet the word covidiot.
Covidio
t is
a person who responds inadequately to the coronavirus epidemic, worries too much,
or, conversely, ignores the danger of an epidemic.
Covidiot
can also be called someone who recklessly neglects the means of collective
and individual protection during the spread of the coronavirus infection COVID-19,
or, conversely, is overly afraid of the consequences of the epidemic
[https://ru.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BA%D0% BE% D0% B2% D0% B8% D0%
B4% D0% B8% D0% BE% D1% 82].
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Also, using the blending method, the word
quaranteam
(
from quarantine
(quarantine) + team (team)
), which has not yet taken root in the Uzbek and Russian
languages, is formed - people with whom you are in quarantine together, and a
number of others. But this does not mean that we did not have our own words-
blenders in connection with the quarantine. The people have already dubbed the days
off declared by the president quarantines - both quarantines and vacations, pictures of
quarantines sent to each other - quarantines, and tinder - a popular dating app on the
Internet - began to be called a quarantine during self-isolation.
Conclusion
: In conclusion, it can be said that the study of compound words not only
as a word, but also the formation of a new word is important in terms of having a
specific place. A compound word is a method of word formation that helps to make a
new concept or idea memorable and appealing, in addition to being helpful in making
it brief and concise from a modern point of view. It is very important to study the
news in English in order to have an idea about the development of languages. Their
use is closely related to the change and development of the neologism.
Pharmaceutical terminology is a historically developing phenomenon
associated with the history of the evolution of science and technology. It concentrates
and in a special way the material of various languages.
1. The use of a synchronic and diachronic approach makes it possible to
consider the process of forming the terminology of modern pharmaceuticals in a
broad historical framework, to reveal the sources of enrichment and the legitimacy of
the use of existing linguistic means in the formation of terms. Thus, while studying
modern pharmaceutical terminology, we took into account the mutual influence of
linguistic and extralinguistic factors in the formation and subsequent development of
this vocabulary.
2. Being a social phenomenon, pharmaceutical terminology functions
according to internal laws, on the one hand, common to the language, and on the
other hand, having a close relationship with society, where the personal and personal
principle plays a significant role in the formation of a new modern English medical
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and pharmaceutical terminology. Formed first by an individual native speaker, the
term is subsequently adopted or rejected by other members of society.
3. The study of national and international principles in medical terminology
made it possible to reveal that the prevailing part of the modern medical vocabulary
of the English language is international due to the involvement of elements and
components of the Greek and Latin languages to create new terms and terminological
phrases, and along with this, it acts as source of enrichment of pharmaceutical
terminologies of other languages. Internationality is characteristic not only of
individual terms, but also of whole terminological phrases and abbreviations,
especially since the latter function in combination with native English lexemes.
4. Research and analysis of the centuries-old history of the formation,
evolution and improvement of pharmaceutical terminology, as well as relationships
and various connections between etymology, semantics and structure of terminology
makes it possible to understand and deeply comprehend the situation in modern
pharmaceutical terminology and Uzbek terminological science, as well as pressing
problems of systematization and regulation terms. The theoretical and clinical
features, the essence of their occurrence, etiology, pathogeny, pathomorphology are
veiled behind a huge number of signs and symbols, which is not always amenable to
accurate identification. This factor gives rise to great difficulties in achieving the
unity of perception and use of explicating terms. Depending on what conceptual
meaning a particular term has, it is difficult to understand its integrity.
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