In arabic, the term “at-tawlid ad-dilaali” is used in the process of generating new meanings of words, which means a meaningful transformation of words. In the Arabic language, new meanings of words are formed in two ways – by means of “ishtikok”, as well as by introducing foreign words into the Arabic language. The internal types include “ishtikok kabiyr”, “ishtikok sogiyr”, “ishtikok kubbar”, “naht”, “itbaun”, the groups of which are “al-ishtikok ad-dilaaliy” (“sensual ishtikok”), “al-ishtikok as-sovtiy” (“sound ishtikok”), “al-ishtikok al-lafziy” (“ uniform ishtikok”), and also “al-ishtikok ash-shabiy” (“popular ishtikok”). In the internal types of ishtikak, the form of the word changes. The letters that make up the word change places, the voices change, some vowels drop out, or are added. In such cases, some words change their meaning partially, and some acquire a completely different meaning. The above-mentioned terms – “ishtikok kabiyr”, “ishtikok sogiyr”, “ishtikok kubbar” are part of “al-ishtikok al-lafziy”. That is, as a result on the broken form of the word, it leads to a change in meaning and it is admitted in al-ishtikok al-lafziy. The formation of new words that are associated with sound, as well as with intonation, as admitted in “al-ishtikok as-sovtiy”. In “al-ishtikok ash-shabiy” the mentioned words that are considered foreign words are borrowed and change their meaning, acquiring new meanings. In “al-ishtikok ad-dilaaliy” words change in meaning, not in form. This may mean that the meaning of the word can be expanded, narrowed, or in a more general sense. This process is known to Arabic linguists as “at-tawliyd ad-dilaaliy” and includes homonymy, metonymy, ad-dod, al-iktirad. Although in Arabic the words homonyms are similar in form, they have different meanings. However, such words show a connection between moving two names into one based on the similarities between the two objects. When it comes to ad-dod, Arabic linguists call it the foundation of “tazad” art. It is characterized by the fact that the word reflects two opposite meanings in essence. Interestingly, Arabic linguists are divided into two poles in the traditional approach. One denies the existence of such words, the other emphasizes its existence and emphasizes that such words are found in Arabic poetry, the Quran and Hadith. In Arabic, the term “al-iktirad” (which means “to borrow”) has a special meaning in the formation of words. Thus, the new meaning in is added to the existing meaning of the word. In some cases, the meaning of the word “al-iktirad” is sometimes expressed sequentially, but in some cases it is not observed at all.
The present article considers of current military vocabulary borrowed from English to Urdu. The data for the research were collected from authentic materials of popular newspapers such as Daily Pakistan, Daily Jang and the official magazine of Pakistan Armed Forces Hilal. The newspapers and magazine were chosen as a source because its language considered simple communication language of society. As English and Urdu languages have been in close contact during the British colonization of the sub-continent, the present study also outlines factors involved in borrowing from English to Urdu and shows the influence of English on Urdu. This article attempts to study the main features of the military terminology of Urdu language. The collected authentic materials were divided into the following semantic groups: terms for military positions, terms for military organizations, abbreviations related to the military sphere, weapons, clothing, words expressing military action and equipment. English loanwords of military terms are used not only in the military, but also in common literary language. Such words have special meaning when they are used in the military. Analysis of English loanwords in semantic groups showed that a lot of words were borrowed in military positions, names of military organizations and abbreviations. We can see that military operations and uniforms semantic group use less English loanwords than other groups. Based on analysis, we can predict with a high degree of certainty that it is no coincidence that these borrowings are used in the press. They are available in both bilingual and monolingual dictionaries.
This article will explore in detail the Hindi unit words “dwigu”. In particular, their linguistic features have been studied. Specific ways of composing words “dwigu” were shown. It has been studied that they consist mainly of two components, that words in both components have a lexical meaning and in some cases “dwigu” words are also formed using affixes. The article found that when the words “dwigu” are formed from numbers “one” is mainly actively used, while relatively few words are formed from other numbers. All analyzed words were shown to include numbers, nouns and in some cases adjectives, all of which were studied through modeling. All words are divided into three main groups recognized in Indian linguistics, namely tatsama, tadbhava and hybrid words and their specific linguistic aspects are analyzed. It was found that the numbers in the first component of the lexemes characteristic of engine words belonging to the tatsama group consisted mainly of numbers from ancient Sanskrit and that examples of the tadbhava group included numbers from units commonly used in modern literary Hindi. It is noticed that the words “dwigu” characteristic of hybrids consist of several numbers belonging to the literary language of Hindi. Also, when interpreting the examples, it was revealed that in some cases, affixes are also part of hybrid words.
It is known from history that the Persian language is derived from the ancient languages, which did not retain its linguistic peculiarities. Temporary and historical circumstances have shown the rise of the lexicon of other languages under the influence of Persian words, as well as the Arabic language. The lexicon of the Uzbek language does not apply to exclusion. The ancient Persian-Tajik language was used in parallel with the languages of the Maverannahr region, in parts, in Uzbek. As a result, many words from the Persian and Arabic languages are used in the lexical composition of the Uzbek language, that is, they are used as common words. On the other hand, not all commonly used words are used for meaning and meaning. In the Uzbek language there is such an ancient Arabic word, that their semantic border has another meaning in the Persian language, and in the Uzbek language - a complete other meaning. Interestingly, what this word-term, used in both languages, refers to the word actively spoken in both languages. In addition, the methods of education of one-word words in comparative languages must correspond to the international standard. In the result, such a conclusion becomes the exact etymological basis and the basic meaning of the productive common words Persian and Uzbek languages. For example, in the Uzbek language, such words exist, such as' muhtoriяtʼ, 'maimurяtʼ,' maimurʼ, 'muқobilʼ,' каakam ',' tasrifʼ, 'insonparvarlikʼ,' dorulfunusʼ, х дастурʼ, 'инқиботʼ и многие სხვაе, basically which is related to Arabic borrowing, but does not fully reflect their meaning from the Arabic language. To give common words являются общеупоребительными словами, которые на сегодняшний день были предложены всесто русско-международного слова-термина The semantic and functional study of such a word serves the development of lexicology of the Uzbek language. The reason why, in 1989, when the Uzbek language was given the status of "state language", a task was set to pursue its prestige. Accordingly, the whole article я яvlяet я conducted the structural-semantic analysis of the Persian common-use words-terms, used daily in the Uzbek language.
There are two types of affixing – prefixing and suffixing in modern Chinese. Suffix words are formed by adding a semantic morpheme and a suffix. It should be noted that in modern Chinese the number of morphemes acting as suffixes in the formation of nouns is not much. However, they stand out for their productivity. The suffixes 子 “zi” and 儿 “er” in modern Chinese are considered one of such suffix morphemes. This article is devoted to the study of the features of the formation of nouns by 子 “zi” and 儿 “er” suffixes in modern Chinese. For the purpose of disclosure of the goal, the author refers to various sources, reveals common and characteristic features only corresponding to the suffix, explores the grammatical features of the lexical units formed by the 子 “zi” and 儿 “er” suffixes and presents conclusion on this topic, justifying each of them with corresponding examples. It was revealed that two, three and four-syllable words are formed by these suffixes; the nouns are formed by combination of 子 “zi” and 儿 “er” with certain verbs, adjectives, countable words, numerals; several constructions including these suffixes were identified. There are many similar features in using the suffixes 子 “zi” and 儿 “er”, which are described in this article. However, there are also significant differences, for example, the suffix 子 “zi” combined with nominal roots with the meaning of objectivity forms words with abstract concepts. And the suffix 儿 “er” sometimes forms words with a dismissive, derogatory meaning and words with the suffix 子 “zi” acquire a caressing shade. According to the study, it was revealed that in Chinese, affixing words are mainly formed by means of suffixing, the degree of use of prefixing is limited. With the help of suffixing a large number of nouns and verbs, as well as adverbs are formed. With the help of prefixation, only ordinal numerals and a limited number of nouns are formed.
Everyone knows that each language has its own characteristics, attractiveness and endearing qualities. And also, some of them side by side with others developed and achieved perfection. The same can be said about the Persian and Turkic languages. Over many centuries, nationalities speaking on these languages have suffered many different events, including the literary and linguistic positions. Words in these languages have passed from one to another and vice versa, some have acquired new meanings. Some types and methods of word formation were borrowed, and with this they enriched their languages. This process is often observed in the works of poets and writers who lived and wrote their works in the Middle Ages. As Alisher Navoi, who wrote works with high skill in the Turkic language, knew the Persian and Arabic languages perfectly, he wisely uses words in his works. And also, if a word denoting a concept does not exist in the Turkic language, he uses the Persian or Arabic language to use these words or based on own observations, forms himself the words according to models. One of such models is the “arabic stem + semi-affix زاس- -sāz” model, according to which, words were formed and many of them are found in the poem “Khayrat al-abror”. Their determination and study is the purpose of this research. In the result of the research, we observed words such as ’ayšsāz, bаẕlsāz, ġāliyаsāz, jilvаsāz, nаġmаsāz, nаqšsāz, sаjdаsāz, vāsiṭаsāz, which were formed based on the aforesaid model, that is with adding Persian semi-affix زاس- -sāz exactly to the Arabic stem. In this article, the above words were analyzed structurally and semantically based on the model, and their meanings were revealed in context. From the considered words bаẕlsāz “giving a gift”, jilvāsāz “shining,” “spreading the light” sājdasāz “performing worship,” vāsiṭāsāz “making smth. as tool” were not found in dictionaries. We can conclude that the poet formed them on the basis of the “Arabic stem + affixoid - زاس -sāz” model to use in his works
Subject of research: English and Uzbek compound words characterising appearance and character of the person in the belles-lettres texts.
Purpose of work: studying and revealing linguoculturological and gender features of compound words characterising appearance and character of the person in the literary text of the English and Uzbek languages.
Methods of research: a method of the componcntial analysis, contextual method, statistical method and method of linguocultural analysis.
The results obtained and their novelty: 1) the complex analysis of compound words expressing appearance and character of the person; has been attempted to analyse; 2) linguoculturological and gender essence of compound words characterising appearance and character of the person have been revealed; 3) a national-cultural specificity of compound words characterising appearance and character of the person has been considered; 4) compound words has been considered linguoculturcma; 5) the role of stylistic devices and metaphoric nominations of considered compound words in the research have been studied.
Practical value: results can be used in lecture courses on Lexicology, Stylistics, Comparative Typology, Linguoculturological Studies, in writing research works, text books and manuals.
Degree of embed: results of the research have been applied in the course of teaching of the following disciplines: Comparative Stylistics, Text Interpretation, Lexicology, Comparative Typology in the Uzbek State University of World Languages.
Field of application: General Linguistics, Stylistics, Comparative Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics, Linguoculturology, Text Interpretation, Gcndcrlogy.
An adverb is a lexico-grammatical class of unchangeable, as a rule, words denoting a sign of an action, quality or object and acting in the syntactic function of a circumstance or definition, less often of a predicate. The adverb in all languages of the world belongs to the late parts of speech, the formation process of which continues to the present day. At the same time, words belonging to this category still retain their functions in other parts of speech from which they were formed. Another distinctive feature of the adverb is the conceptual heterogeneity of the class of words in comparison with other parts of speech. Based on the above, we can say that there are many definitions of adverbs in Afghan and Iranian studies. Previously, the works of Arab scholars served as the basis for studying the grammar of Dari and the Persian languages; today, Afghan and Iranian philologists admit that there are significant differences between Arabic and their languages, and therefore, in studying the grammar of their language, they try to take into account the grammatical features exclusively Farsi. It should be noted that there is an activity of Iranian philologists in the field of writing scientific articles and books devoted to the interpretation of a particular grammatical issue, the attention of researchers to the structure of syntax has increased. We have analyzed a number of works on the grammar of the Dari and Persian languages, which touch on the question of parts of speech and minor members of a sentence. Below is a brief description of some works on the grammar of the modern Dari and Persian languages, in which the question of our research is most fully considered. In world linguistics, the Dari language is not widely studied, like the Persian language. In Iranian studies, in the scientific description of this language, it is mainly noted that it differs from the modern Persian language. In the Dari language, as well as in the Persian language, the authors consider the adverb from a morphological and syntactic point of view. In the course of our research, we analyzed the works related to the modern Dari language, as well as unique works that are being republished for the second time in Afghanistan
T his article explores the Arabic borrowings in the poem "Hairat ul-Abror" ("confusion of the virtuous") by the founder of the uzbek language and world-famous poet Alisher Navoi. For this purpose, the use of 2838 lexemes and phrases of Arabic origin on the basis of the concordance of the “frequency dictionary”, was revealed. In addition to this, there are 52 quotes from Kor’an and the hadiths of the prophet that are not adapted into the Uzbek language system. Approximately 90% of Arab borrowings went through the adaptation process in the literary Uzbek language before Navoi and is still in use. The remaining 10% were not included in the vocabulary of the Uzbek language and, if necessary, the use of the Arabic system of versification "Aruz" and rhyme. The poet compiled a special vocabulary of Arabic borrowings "Sab’ati abhur" (Seven Oceans), in order to use in verses as necessary.Another sign of the complete adaptation of Arabic is compound and affix words composed according to the “Arabic-Persian”, “Arabic-Turkish” models by their morphological and syntactic rule of the Uzbek language.
The position, profession, status and prestige of a person in society play an important role in his life. It's no secret that in a certain sense, these positions also determine the attitude of the people around him. This article is devoted to words related to the social status of people, their profession and position in society, methods of treatment and their translation into Urdu. The work also examines the division into caste societies of India and Pakistan, the current and historical state and problems associated with social status, the importance in the life of Indians and Pakistanis of stratification into castes, words and treatment that can be applied to every member of society, woman and man. Particular attention is paid to how these words were rendered in Urdu by the translator, translation methods and their analysis. The literary source for the presented scientific article is the work of the famous Uzbek writer Pirimkul Kadyrov "Starry Nights" and its translation into Urdu by an experienced translator Manzar Salim. The authors, having carefully studied the translation, tried to note all the achievements of the translated work.
The method of linguopoetic analysis plays a key role in determining the essence of poetic phenomena in the text of wishes/applause/prayers, studying their relationship, the influence of linguistic units on the aesthetic thinking of people. Opposite lexemes in Turkish wishes/applause/prayers have a wide range of lexical units for opposition in the text, and along with antonyms, they serve as a linguistic means of opposition in a literary text. In almost all works, text analysis takes into account only contradictions within one category, while in a literary text, along with words of one category, words belonging to different categories also actively participate as lexical means of creating contrasts. Contradiction is one of the main criteria for evaluating events. The role of the category of opposition in understanding the universe is incomparable. Revealing the essence of events is nothing more important than using their opposite. Contradiction arises not only as a reflection of the phenomena of objective existence, but also as a product of the world of thought. Turkish wishes/applause/prayer also has the ability to show your art through contrast. The linguistic expression of contradiction is interpreted as “antonymy”. However, the criteria for determining antonyms, in particular categorical restriction, do not provide sufficient coverage of the nature of the contradiction. Indeed, the categorical seme underlying the classification of words is the most frequent characteristic component of the semantic structure of a word. They do not create contradictory relationships and do not deny their existence. Accordingly, it is necessary to study the category of contradiction outside the category.
At present, as in all branches of science, translation is developing at a rapid pace, in sync with the achievements of world translation science. Of course, the main basis for this is the radical reforms being carried out in our country. Today, in Uzbek literature, as in all types and genres, there is an increase in the practice of literary translation. A lot of work is being done to translate samples of world literature directly into the Uzbek language and translate the masterpieces of Uzbek literature into foreign languages. When translating a text, it is important to preserve national identity and correctly and clearly express it in the translated language. It is no secret that the fulfillment of the honorable task of translating samples of Uzbek literature into foreign languages and the best works of world literature into our native language depends on the talent and enthusiasm of the current young generation. Therefore, young people need to pay more attention to their native language and study it in depth. In some languages, words are grammatically divided into gender categories: maxuline (masculine) and feminine (feminine) or neutral (neutral). Although the Uzbek language does not have such categories as maksulin (masculine), feminine (feminine), or neutral (neutral), gender categories are defined according to the meaning of words. For example, dugona describes the friendship of two women and is only feminine. Words like oshna, ortoq belong to the maxulin category. Given these features, it is important to correctly translate into another language or from a second language into Uzbek. Gender studies are not only about gender biology studies, but also the ability to choose words and sentences and use them where necessary in the translation process.
The article is devoted to the study of the method of word formation in modern Chinese using the «族zú» affix. It is known that the lexical stock of a language is constantly replenished due to the internal capabilities of the language and extracted from a foreign language. Of course, Chinese is no exception. Which method is the most effective for a language, depends on a number of features of the language. In Chinese, affixing is the second most productive after word addition. Like the vocabulary of a language, its morphemic units are constantly replenished. In addition to the trend observed in world linguistics, the affix method is becoming more and more active in word formation in the Chinese language, therefore the number of affix units in the language is also increasing. One of the affixes that plays an important role in the construction of modern Chinese neologisms is 族 zú, which participates in the construction of a number of new words in the Chinese language. Most of these words refer to a noun and serve to denote a social group that has a specific character. Words formed with the participation of 族 zú are more involved in the formation of words that are applied to a specific group of people in accordance with their social status or role in social life. But, in our opinion, 族 zú is not a full affix unit, but a semi-affix. Therefore, when words are formed with the participation of, zú, it does not completely lose its original meaning, the meaning of a group or community. Like the vocabulary of a language, its morphemic units are constantly replenished. In addition to the trend observed in world linguistics, the method of affixation in the Chinese language is becoming more and more active in word formation, therefore the number of affix units present in the language is also increasing.
The continuous development of medicine, which is an integral part of human life, allows to constantly replenish the terminological layer of the lexicon by introducing new names and developing stable ones. The fact that terminology in various disciplines exceeds the number of words in common use makes it necessary to study special vocabulary. In particular, severe acute respiratory syndrome, caused by 2 (SARC-CoV-2) detected in China on November 17, 2019, a new infectious disease COVID - 19 coronavirus infection, has now led to a pandemic situation worldwide. This reaffirms that an in-depth study of medical terminology is one of the most pressing issues. In this article, the features of the construction of Chinese medical terms; we have identified suffixes, semi-suffixes, prefixes, and semi-prefixes that are most actively involved in word formation, affixation methods, and term formation. It was considered that terms borrowed from other languages also played an important role in the Chinese medical lexicon. Terms learned from other languages also play an important role in the medical lexicon of Chinese; a pure phonetic assimilation is often found in the names of these substances 夫 南西林 [fūnánxīlīn ] “furatsilin" , many of which have a semantically assimilated alternative 因素林 [yīnsùlín] "insulin", some of them 阿摩西林 [āmóxīlín] and 阿莫西林 [āmòxīlín ] “amoxicillin” have been considered. Abbreviated complex words make it difficult to understand medical texts because they are formed in different ways, so abbreviations in Chinese 脱氧核糖核酸 [Tuōyǎng hétáng hésuān] "deoxyribonucleic acid" = 脱氧核 酸 [Tuōyǎng hésuān] «DNA»), that is, the abbreviations were studied separately. During the study of the construction of medical terms, we found that most terms and terminological phrases are formed by the method of addition and affixation. Systematization of these allows to determine the methodological basis for the translation of new terms in Chinese. In the article it has been investigated and drawn relevant conclusions on the subject of the works of Russian and Uzbek linguists such as Karimov A.A, Gorelov V.I. ,. Popova D.E., Xorechko U.V., Frolova O.P.,Ochirov O.R, Superanskaya, AV, Superanskaya, A.V, Karimov A.A, Nosirova S.A, Hashimova S.A, Mustafaeva S.
More than 70 works of Mahmud Zamakhshari, which had a great influence on the spiritual heritage of Maverannahr, are devoted to linguistics, literature, religious studies, didactics, geography. Linguistics and word science occupy a special place in the scientific heritage of the scientist. Mahmud Zamakhshari covers all areas of science related to linguistics and lexicography. The famous work of the scientist “Muqaddamatu-l-adab” is one of the sources of this style. This work, recognized as the first multilingual dictionary, contains аrabic-рersian-turkic trilingual, arabic-persian-turkic-mongolian four-language manuscripts. The work consists of five parts, the first title of which belongs to the category of words, and the second is dedicated to the verb and its derivatives. The third part consists of grammatical rules concerning auxiliary words, the fourth part-declension of nouns, and the fifth part-declension of verbs. There are copies in world collections that contain five parts of the work, as well as manuscripts in which the grammatical parts are translated separately. The volume of the dictionary parts of the work is of great and important scientific significance. In particular, the turkic vocabulary in the manuscripts included in the turkish vocabulary of the work is among the topics that are not studied and are relevant in world linguistics. 10 rare manuscripts of the dictionary “Muqaddamatu-l-adab” are stored in the funds of Tashkent, 62 copies-in the funds of countries around the world. The main part of them was moved in the XIII-XIVcenturies, and this period serves as an important source for studying the richness and semantic features of the turkic language dictionary. So far, 6 manuscripts have been found in the funds of the world, which were rewritten in Khorezm. The oldest manuscript of the work is the arabic-persian dictionary, rewrittenin Khorezm in 1257 and now stored in the Suleiman Foundation of Turkey. Khorezm manuscripts of the work are stored in the funds of Turkey, Dagestan, and France.
It is known that nationalism and original words are one of the important tasks in the translation of a historical work. Specific words are an integral part of the language of the work, with the help of which the author creates the image of the hero, describing the nationality of the people. They express the national flavor of a work of art, perform various stylistic functions, and help to accurately and accurately describe the nature of events and objects. That is why realities are aspects of literary-historical translation that torment the translator, complicate translation and often confuse him. There is also the assignment of personal names and nicknames when translating historical works into national words. In this article, we can see how The Journey of the famous Arab traveler Ibn Battuta provides detailed information on historical figures in the original Arabic language, as well as translations into Turkish and Uzbek languages, as well as the translation abilities of translators.
This article is devoted to the paradigm of the formation of lexical units with the help of conversion, the basis of which are words related to part of the verb speech in modern Chinese. Conversion in linguistics is a type of transposition. If the transposition is associated with a change in the lexical-morphological environment and, as a result, the paradigm of the inflection, previously not inherent in the lexical unit, arises, and other syntactic signs also appear, then this kind of transposition is usually called morphological transposition, that is, often referred to as conversion. Conversion is widespread in various languages of the world, and this phenomenon is interdependent on the following factors: a) what parts of speech this phenomenon relates to and what kind of derivation it refers to, b) which morphological paradigms are formed as a result of conversion. As a result of the conversion, words are formed that are similar in root, but different in relation to parts of speech. In many languages, issues related to semantic conversion models are still not fully researched. The article revealed six conversion models among words related to the speech part of a verb in modern Chinese, such as: [verb → noun], [verb → adjective], [verb → counting word], [verb → conjunction], [ verb → preposition] and [verb-noun-adverb]. In modern Chinese, in addition to substantiation, as one of the types of conversion, adverbization, verbalization and adjetivization are also widespread. Despite the widespread use of conversion, descriptions of this phenomenon in many scientific text-books and materials relating to the Chinese language, and studying the modern Chinese language in the framework of word formation, this phenomenon has not been studied in a separate foreshortening. Based on the research done, we can conclude that all types of conversions in the Chinese language contribute to the replenishment of the vocabulary of words and this phenomenon needs a separate study.
In Iranian studies, the scientific description of the Dari language mainly notes its differences from the modern Persian language. In the word-formation of the Dari language, special attention is paid to the affixational word-formation of parts of speech. In recent years, the comprehensive development of the Dari language has become noticeable, during which time there have been tangible changes in all its fields. In this regard, the study of the questions of the ways of forming, developing and improving the Dari language, substantiating the reasons, regularities and possibilities of this process, as well as determining the principles of word-formation, is becoming increasingly essential. This, in turn, points to the need for a separate study of the Dari language directly based on its materials. The article studies affixal and semi-affixal word-formation and the problems of compounding in the Dari language within the framework of genetically related languages. The derivational affix in the Dari language, also in Persian, produces a word that belongs to a certain lexical-grammatical category: in derived words, derivational features are simultaneously categorical. The leading role in replenishing the vocabulary of the modern Dari language belongs to word-formation through semi-affixes. In the Dari language, words in which the second part is expressed by a verb (the stem of simple verbs of the present tense, their variants with the suffix -i or the particle of negation, the form of the imperative mood) make up the majority of word-formation. The stems of prefix and compound verbs of the present tense are much less common here. Due to a large number of verbal word morphemes, semi-affixation, as well as affixation and compounding, is the most productive way in the system of word-formation. Semi-suffixes are used mainly in the formation of new socio-political and scientific-technical terms. In word-formation, an indicator of the method of lexicalization, i.e. the transformation of combinations with conjunction into complex words is high enough. The process of lexicalization of word-combinations in the Dari language is still at the stage of formation, which gives reason to assert the complexity of the distinction between a complex word and a word-combination. Among the phonetic, grammatical and semantic features that make it possible to distinguish a complex word from a word-combination, the main one is the grammatical feature.